Lecture 3

The culture of writing

a research paper
 Narrowing the topic
Remember that your conclusions will be
worth only as much as the evidence
supports them. The value of your paper
thus depends on the completeness of the
supporting facts and ideas that you include
in it.
Give a focus to your research by
narrowing as much as you can before you
start collecting.
 Sources of information
What sources can you use to look
for information relevant to your
topic?
Is it permitted to use the Internet?
 Sources of information
A source is a book, magazine, newspaper,
pamphlet, or anything else that gives you
information for a research paper.
The Internet can be used to a limited
extent.
Give your sources a proper credit because
you use others’ ideas.
 Ten questions to revise a rough draft
1. Are my goals and objectives concise and clear?
2. Did I follow my outline? Did I miss anything?
3. Have I proved my goals and objectives with strong
supporting arguments?
4. Are my arguments presented in a logical sequence?
5. Are there any unnecessary or repetitious words?
6. Does one paragraph flow smoothly into the next?
7. Are all sources properly cited to ensure that I am not
plagiarizing?
8. Are there any spelling or grammatical errors?
9. Did I avoid using contractions? Use "cannot" instead
of "can't", "do not" instead of "don't"?
10. Did I leave a sense of completion for my readers at
the end of the paper?
 Final draft
is the final written product turned in for a grade.
All the research papers should be typewritten
and printed.
Proofread final paper carefully for spelling,
capitalization, grammar, punctuation, missing or
duplicated words. Make the effort to ensure that
your final paper is clean, tidy, neat, and
attractive.
Aim to have your final paper ready a day or two
before the deadline. This gives you peace of
mind and a chance to triple check.
Content of the paper: introduction,
body and conclusion
What is the proportion of each of
the necessary parts of a research
paper?
How are they related to each
other?
What is expected to be included
into each of them?
Introduction, body and conclusion:
the proportion
Introduction: 2 pages
Body: 10-15 pages
Conclusion: 1 page
References: 1-5 pages
Total: 20-25 pages
Introduction, body and conclusion:
relation to each other
Introduction: Explains the topic
choice, sets the problem and the
scientific apparatus of the research
Body: Theoretical and practical issues
of the research
Conclusion: Results of the research
 Introduction
is the most important paragraph in your paper. It should
prepare the reader by indicating the general purpose and
subject of the work. It must be both interesting and
informative. If it is well written, both your reader and you
will know the following:
Your topic
Relevance of the topic
The goals and objectives of the investigation made
Scientific and practical significance of the paper
The points you are using in the discussion
What research has already been made and by whom
The idea or opinion you are conveying
 Scientific apparatus of the
research
Relevance of the topic Research methods
Problem Scientific basis
Topic Spheres of application
Object Structure of the
Subject research
Hypothesis Research approbation
Goal
Objectives
 Body of the research
Theoretical part / chapter
Practical implementation of theory
(classification, typology or the like)
Approbation in teaching process
 Conclusion
brings the work to a definite close. It is often the most
difficult part of a work to write. Your conclusion should
accomplish specific tasks:
Bring the paper to an interesting and logical end.
Reinforce the main points of the work without
unnecessary repetition.
If your introduction went from general to specific, make
your conclusion go from specific to general. Think
globally.
You don't have to give new information to create a new
meaning. By demonstrating how your ideas work
together, you can create a new picture. Often the sum of
the paper is worth more than its parts.
 Argumentation
Argument is a series of generalizations or
propositions, supported by evidence or
reasoning and connected in a logical
manner, that lead to a justified conclusion.
You must sustain your argument by giving
evidence and reasons.
 Analysis
To analyze means to break a topic or
concept down into its parts in order to
inspect and understand it, and to
restructure those parts in a way that
makes sense to you.
What kinds of analysis do you know?
 Objective and subjective
analysis
Subjective analysis is based on personal
impressions, values, and tastes. It, even
when based on personal opinion, requires
proof. Simply stating a point of view is not
analysis. It must be based on evidence
readers can examine for themselves.
Objective analysis rests on factual
research rather than personal impressions.
 Some style considerations
Use Standard English. Colloquial English
typically does not make a good impression.
Watch your sentence structure. After several
simple sentences, add a longer one.
Avoid sentence fragments. Every sentence
must have a subject and a verb.
Do not end sentences with prepositions. This
rule is being relaxed, but repetitive use of
prepositions at the end of sentences is
indicative of poor sentence structure.
 Some style considerations
Watch your paragraph length. Paragraphs over one
page in length are usually too long. They may
contain redundant statements or more than one
major idea. Rework such paragraphs to delete
unnecessary text or to separate ideas into
additional paragraphs. At the other extreme, one-
sentence paragraphs are not acceptable.
Remember that each paragraph should have an
idea and several others that explain or develop that
topic.
Make sure subjects and verbs agree. Subject-verb
disagreement is most likely to occur when the two
are separated in the sentences by several other
words.
 Avoiding plagiarism
Why is it important to avoid
plagiarism?
What can you do to achieve that
goal?
 Avoiding plagiarism
There are a few means to avoid plagiarism:
citing,
quotation,
paraphrasing
common knowledge
 Avoiding plagiarism: citing
Citation is a reference note that
includes the title, author,
publisher, year, and page number
of a source, a note used after
quotations and paraphrases that
gives the author, year, and page
number of the source.
 Some basic rules of citing:
You do not need to cite your own
thoughts, ideas, written products, or
research.
You do not need to cite information
classified as common knowledge.
Examples of common knowledge include
indisputable facts known by large numbers
of people, and common sense
observations.
Avoiding plagiarism: quotation
Quoting is repeating (a passage,
phrase, etc.) from a book, speech, or
the like. Quotations must be identical
to the original, using a narrow
segment of the source. They must
match the source document word for
word and must be attributed to the
original author.
Some basic rules of quoting:
If something is quoted it means that the
author agrees with it.
Quotations are written in the same
language your work is written in. The
sources from the other languages must be
translated.
Any quoting should show where the
quotation is taken from.
 Select quotations that

develop a step in your argument ;

present striking, memorable phrasing;
provide a strong, specific example;
introduce a claim open to interpretation;
summarize the author’s main points.
Avoiding plagiarism: paraphrasing
Paraphrasing involves putting a
passage from source material into your
own words.
A paraphrase must also be attributed to
the original source.
Paraphrased material is usually shorter
than the original passage, taking a
somewhat broader segment of the
source and condensing it slightly.
 A paraphrase is:
Your own version of essential information and
ideas expressed by someone else, presented
in a new form.
One legitimate way (when accompanied by
accurate documentation) to borrow from a
source.
A more detailed restatement, which focuses
concisely on a single main idea
Paraphrasing is a valuable skill because...

It is better than quoting information from

an ordinary passage.
It helps you control the temptation to quote
too much.
The mental process required for
successful paraphrasing helps you to
grasp the full meaning of the original.
 Avoiding plagiarism:
common knowledge
Material is probably common knowledge if :
You find the same information undocumented
in at least five other sources
You think it is information that your readers
will already know
You think a person could easily find the
information with general reference sources.
On bibliography and references

What is the difference

between bibliography and
references?
What is more appropriate to
a graduation paper?
 Bibliography
is a full list of information sources relevant
to the topic of the research;
it tells your readers where they can find
more information about your topic
It can contain hundreds of sources and be
about ten or twenty pages.
 References
is a list of sources that have been used in
preparing your report. It contains twenty-
five sources minimum.
75% of the sources must be of the latest
publications (last five years).
The sources appear in the order they are
mentioned in the work. They must be
numbered with Arabic numerals without a
full stop starting from a new paragraph.
 APPENDICES IF ANY
Appendix is supplementary material at the end
of a book, article or other text, usually of an
explanatory, statistical, or bibliographical nature.
An appendix is not obligatory, however is
appreciated. It can include texts, pictures,
sample questionnaires, tables and figures
(material such as photographs, images, charts,
and line-drawings), maps, graphs, and the like .