Geology and Soil Formation

GLE/CEE 330 Lecture Notes

Soil Mechanics

William J. Likos, Ph.D.

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
University of Wisconsin-Madison

(Image: Coduto, 1999)

Geology and Geotechnical Engineering

Geotechnical
Engineering
Civil
Engineering
Engineering
Geology

Geology
Geological
Engineering

(Not a bad idea for geotechs to minor in geology)

 Geology
• Geology – scientific study of the earth

• How the earth formed

Physical geology
• Nature of the interior
• Resources –
minerals, metals, etc.
• Water cycle
• Events and
environments
• History – physical,
chemical, & biological
Wikipedia.org
 Layers of the Earth
• Earth ~ 4.6 billion years-old; separated into
layers by differing composition and physical
properties
• Crust ~ 8-45 km thick
– Thin, low-density, brittle
• Mantle ~ 80% Earth
by volume
–  density; comprises
brittle-ductile boundary
• Core ~2883 km deep
– Outer liquid; inner solid
– Metallic, high-density Wikipedia.org
 Geologic Features
Divergent Convergent Divergent Transform Volcanic
boundary boundary boundary boundary island
arc

Lithosphere
Oceanic crust
Magma
Continental Subduction
crust Subducting zone
Plate Asthenosphere
Murck & Skinner (1999)

• Crust: density contrast between oceanic & continental

• Lithosphere – crust + upper-mantle; rocky & brittle
• Asthenosphere – lower-mantle; hotter & weaker rock = ductile
 Geologic Cycle
Interaction b/w
atmo-, hydro-,
Erosion & bio-, and litho-
Weathering of
transport sphere → soil
surface rock formation
Sediment
deposition

Burial &
Igneous compression
rock
Uplift
Sedimentary rock
Crystallization
of magma
Deformation &
Metamorphic rock
metamorphism
Melting
 The Geologic Cycle

(Image: Coduto, 1999)

 Residual Soil Profile

Depth of weathering depends on

environment (temp, rainfall)

Tropical : (100s meters)

Arid: (shallow)

Physical and chemical weathering

(Image: echo.epfl.ch/.../chapt_1/pictures/fig1_7.jpg)
Residual Soil Profile

Murck and Skinner (1999)

 Common Bedrock Types

Feldspar: soft, weathers to clay

Quartz (SiO2): very durable, weathers to sand
Carbonates (Limestone): dissolves in water (acid), karst, sinkholes
Sandstone : sedimentary, aquifers
Shale: consolidated/indurated clay

24.8
26.3
26.3
27.8
27.8
29.4
29.4
30.9
30.9
32.4
32.4
33.9
33.9
35.5
35.5
37.0

37.0
38.5
38.5
40.0

Quartz Sand
Missouri Shale – Coal, Limestone Beds
Wisconsin Geology
 Soil vs. Rock

Soil Rock
Uncemented (particulate) Cemented (“massive”)
High Porosity (n = Vv/Vt) (20-70%) Low Porosity
Continuous Possibly Continuous (fractured)
Low Strength (esp. tensile) High Strength (good bearing
material)
 Physical Weathering Processes
1) Erosion
Water (rainfall, runoff, rivers, waves)
Wind (e.g., sand dunes)
Ice (glacial activity)
2) Unloading of overburden (cracking)
3) Plant/Animal activity (roots, burrows – opens channels for water)
4) Freeze/Thaw cycles (frost heave, ice jacking)
5) Abrasion from rock/soil falls
 Chemical Weathering Processes

Exposure to oxygen, water (consider fresh road cut)

Mineral growth (e.g., ettringite)
Role of microbes (bio-remediation)

(Images: S. Levorson)
 Weathering
Factors influencing weathering:

• Mineral composition
• Presence of joints
• Steepness of slope
• Climate –
temperature and
precipitation
• Vegetation
• Burrowing animals
Murck and Skinner (1999)
 Residual Soil vs. Transported Soil

Residual soil is weathered in place

Transported soil is weathered and MOVED

Transport mechanism has influence on

PROPERTIES AND ENGINEERING BEHAVIOR

1) Glacial soils
2) Alluvial (Fluvial) soils
3) Lacustrine/Marine soils
4) Aeolian (Eolian) soils
5) Colluvial soils
 Glacial Soils

• Transported by glacial activity (very powerful)

• “Glacial Till” – wide range of particle sizes (boulders to clay)
• “Moraine” – ridge of till left at end or side of receeding glacier
• “Varved Clay” – very thin (mm) interlayering of silt/clay, outwash events
• Highly anisotropic (permeability, strength)

~ present-day I-70
Northern MO is relatively flat (high spots scraped, low spots filled in)

~varved clay (Vermont)

 Glacial Soils
• Glaciation grinds down soils and rocks and can transport
resultant materials over large distances
• Till (moraine) – debris deposited directly by a glacier
• Glacio-fluvial – sediments deposited by meltwater
• Glacio-lacustrine –deposition of fine soils in large bodies
of water

isgs.uiuc.edu
 Alluvial (Fluvial) Soils
• Transported by moving water (rivers, streams)
• Efficient sorting mechanism (can be “poorly graded”)
• Tend to be rounded grains (how does this affect behavior?)
• “Alluvial fan” – fan deposit when stream reaches end of valley
• Consider New Orleans - slow flow, deep soft deposits (PILES!)
• Significant consolidation concerns

Source: Univ. of Idaho

Particle sorting

meander deposit Alluvial fan

 Influence of Grain Shape

Rounded Angular

Lower strength Higher strength

Less dilation More dilation
 Lacustrine/Marine Soils

• Transported by rivers entering lakes (lacustrine) or ocean (marine)

• Flat deposits
• Fine-grained , soft and compressible
• Oriented particle fabric
• Dependent on water chemistry (salt water vs fresh water)

Could have anisotropic fabric

For example, khorz > kvert
 Aeolian (Eolian) Soils
• Transported by wind (e.g., sand dunes)
• Rounded grains
• Poorly graded grain size distribution
• “Loess” – aeolian silt
• Common in midwest (river valleys)
• High porosity
• “Collapse” potential

Vertical cut in loess

(Source: Marcos Montoro)
 Colluvial Soils

• Transported by gravity (e.g., rock falls, landslides)

• Relatively young from a geologic standpoint (angular!)
• Slow processes (creep)
• Fast processes (landslides, rock falls, debris flows)
• “Talus” – colluvial fan at base of slope

earthsci.org Talus
 Geologic Heterogeneity
• Geological processes typically create heterogeneous
subsurface formations
• Soils generally vary in 3-dimensional space
• Site investigations:
– Conducted at select locations
– Infer subsurface conditions between investigation
points
Water table
Till
Silt & clay
Silt Sand &
Silt
gravel Silt
Silt & clay Till
Sand
Bedrock Till
Till
Outwash plain lwr.kth.se
 Subsurface Heterogeneity

Serne et al. (2010)

• Example from Hanford Site in

Washington State Ward et al. (2006)

• Heterogeneity within Hanford

Formation sediments • White square = 1-m grid block
• Darker color of silty sand • White circles – 5 and 15-cm-
indicates higher moisture diameter = sample size to
content characterize soil properties