KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND BUILDING ENGINEERING

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING IN CIVIL AND BUILDING

ENGINEEERING

TCBE 3106 HYDROLOGY AND WATER RESOURCE ENGINEERING

READING TEST PRESENTATION

LECTURER: Dr. Eng. AMBROSE MUBIALIWO

Group Members
1. ATWINE JUNIOR 21/U/ECE/16440/PE
2. GIDUDU EMMA 22/U/ECE/1416/PE
3. KAKAIRE HERBERT 22/U/ECE/1465/PE
4. KASADHA JOVIN 21/U/ECD/16550/PD
5. ETRIMA GEOFFREY 22/U/ECD/1408/PD
6. KATABIRA RONALD 20/U/ECE/7831/PE
7. BAMUWALANA ALLAN 20/U/ECW/14181/WKD
Presentation out line
Sub Surface
 Rainfall-runoff relationships
 Steady flow analysis
 Hydrographs
Ground water hydrology and Hydraulics
 Characteristics of ground water
 Occurrence of ground water
 Ground water hydraulics; Darcy’s law
 Steady flow
 Pumping tests and analysis
 Geophysical methods
 SURFACE RUNOFF
(i) Rainfall-runoff relationship

When a storm occurs, a portion of rainfall infiltrates into the ground and
some portion may evaporate. The rest flows as a thin sheet of water over
the land surface which is termed as overland flow (Surface runoff). If there
is a relatively impermeable stratum in the subsoil, the infiltrating water
moves laterally in the surface soil and joins the stream flow, which is
termed as underflow (subsurface flow) or interflow. If there is no impeding
layer in the subsoil the infiltrating water percolates into the ground as deep
seepage and builds up the ground water table.
The dynamic interaction of surface storage, soil infiltration, and rain
intensity affects the connection between rainfall and runoff in any
thunderstorm. Runoff happens when the amount of rain falls exceeds the
soil's capacity for infiltration when there are no physical obstacles
blocking surface flow.
 The runoff from a particular downpour relies on:
 Rainfall volume

The intensity of rainfall is the total amount of rain that falls over time. A measure of
the intensity of rain is the height of the water layer that gradually covers the ground.

 Infiltration rate of the soil

The soil infiltration rate (IR), which can happen in a variety of situations, is the
volume flux of water going into the profile per unit of soil surface area. When water
is added to the soil, a thin layer (less than 2 mm thick), called as the seal, is
typically created, which frequently causes the IR to decrease from its initial high
rate.
 Storage capacity of the soil's surface
Therefore, Runoff = IR – SIR - SSC
Where,
IR – Rainfall intensity

SIR - Rate of soil infiltration

SSC - Soil surface storage capacity

 Streamflow analysis
Streamflow is the volumetric discharge expressed as a function of
time. The gathering and analysis of streamflow data is one of the key
hydrological responsibilities. Analysis of streamflow aids in;
 An explanation of the flow regime
 To assess the potential of different rivers
 To forecast potential river flows in the future.
 Curves of flow duration
The cumulative frequency curve known as the flow-duration curve
shows the percentage of time that a specific discharge was met or
exceeded over a specified period of time.
 Analysis of frequency
Flood frequency analysis is a method that hydrologists use to forecast flow
levels along a river that correspond to specific return periods or probabilities.
Using annual peak flow data that is available for a number of years, flood
frequency analysis is used to generate frequency distribution graphs by
determining statistical data such as mean, standard deviation, and skewness.
Flood frequency plays a crucial role in determining the frequency of floods
when planning dams, bridges, culverts, levees, highways, sewage treatment
facilities, water treatment facilities, industrial structures, etc.
The techniques for frequency analysis are as follows;
1. Counting how many events occur at specific intervals (interval
method)
2. The ranking system
3.Application of theoretical frequency distributions
Analyzing frequency using the ranking algorithm. Research, 2023;
method described to R.J. Oosterbaan
Ranking data for frequency analysis can be done in both ascending
and descending order.
The steps for the ranking approach are as follows.
Sort the entire amount of data (n) in decreasing order by value (x), with the
highest value coming in front and the lowest value coming last.
Each value x should be given a serial number (r), with x1 being the highest
value and xn being the lowest (xr r = 1, 2, 3,..., n).
By dividing the rank (r) by the total number of observations plus one, you
may determine the frequency of exceedance.
F(x > xr) =
Calculate the frequency of non-exceedance.
F(x ≤ xr) = 1 - F(x > xr) = 1 -
 Issues with frequency analysis

 The streamflow records from which the estimation method is formed must be
accurate. Frequency analysis isn't particularly useful when the records are brief
or of questionable quality.
 Each storm or low flow occurrence used in the data set is assumed to be
independent of one another. In annual maximum (or minimum) series, this is
very simple to avoid; in peak threshold series, it is more challenging.
 The hydrological regime has been assumed to have stayed constant during the
whole time of record. This might not hold true in areas of the watershed where
land use or climate change have taken place.
Hydrograph

An ongoing record of a stream or river discharge is called a

hydrograph. A particular catchment's response to a variety of special
circumstances, including the catchment's underlying geology, the
amount of pre-existing moisture, and the length of a storm, determines
the shape of the hydrograph.
Unit hydrograph

An isolated rainfall of a certain unit length that falls uniformly across the
whole catchment area creates a unit volume of runoff (1 cm3) is referred to
as a unit hydrograph.
Derivation of the unit hydrographs

•To create a unit hydrograph from an observed flood hydrograph, the

following procedures are used:
 Isolated (single-peaked), powerful storms that occurred uniformly across the
watershed created flood hydrographs with a substantial amount of runoff.
 Select a hydrograph of a flood that occurred as a result of the unit storm you chose in
item above.
 Distinguish between the base flow and the entire runoff.
 To obtain the ordinates of direct runoff, subtract the relevant ordinates of base flow
from the ordinates of the total runoff hydrograph (at regular time intervals).
 To determine the depth of net precipitation across the drainage basin, divide the area

of the drainage basin by the volume of direct runoff.

 Divide each ordinate of direct runoff by the depth of net precipitation to

obtain the ordinates of the unit hydrograph.
Elements of a unit hydrograph

 Base width (T): That is the time duration of direct surface runoff.

 Unit storm: The storm of unit duration

 Unit period: This is the period of the unit storm.

 Lag time (tp): This is the time from the center of unit storm to the
peak discharge of the corresponding unit hydrograph.

 Recession time (Tr): The duration of the direct surface runoff after the
end of the excess rainfall.
Application of unit hydrograph

•A unit hydrograph has two uses:

i. First, it can be used to build a unit hydrograph of desired duration from

one of known duration using the S-curve approach or the superposition
concept.
ii. From the unit hydrograph thus produced, to determine the flood
hydrograph corresponding to a single storm or a string of storms. For
design purposes, a design storm is assumed, and a design flood
hydrograph is created using a unit hydrograph.
Instantaneous unit hydrograph

An instantaneous unit hydrograph is one produced by an effective rainfall of 1 mm and

has an infinitesimal reference duration, or a duration that approaches towards zero.
The instantaneous unit hydrograph, in accordance with the systematic notion,
represents the catchment's response to an immediate impulse. Because we must divide
the rainfall into numerous short durations and then determine its response, the
instantaneous unit hydrograph is mostly employed when rainfall duration and intensity
are variable. S-curves can also be used to obtain the instantaneous unit hydrograph;
however, this is only a rough method known as Clark's method.
S-hydrograph

A S hydrograph is a hydrograph that is created by steady effective

rainfall that lasts for an endless amount of time. Because of how the
hydrograph's shape resembles the letter "S," it is known as a "S"
hydrograph.
 GROUND WATER HYDROLOGY AND HYDRAULICS.

Characteristics of Groundwater.
Water found in rock cracks, soil pores, and fractures below the surface of the Earth
is known as groundwater. It provides water for drinking, agriculture, and industrial
use, making it a crucial natural resource. The following are some essential traits of
groundwater:
Availability: Most of the freshwater resources on Earth come from groundwater,
which is a key source of freshwater. However, according on the local geology and
hydrology, its availability may vary.

Quality: Compared to surface water, groundwater typically has better quality and is
less prone to pollution. However, human activities like farming and industrial
processes, as well as natural sources like mineral deposits, can still contaminate it.
• Movement: The permeability, porosity, and hydraulic conductivity of the
surrounding materials all affect how slowly groundwater travels through the soil
and rock strata. Human actions like land use changes and groundwater pumping
may have an impact on this movement.

• Recharge: Groundwater can be recharged through precipitation and infiltration,

and this process can take months or years to complete. The recharge rate can vary
depending on factors such as climate, soil type, and vegetation cover.

• Storage: The amount of groundwater that may be stored depends on the local
geology and hydrology and is kept in the soil and rock layers. Wells and other
groundwater pumping facilities can be used to extract it.
Temperature: Aquifer location and depth can affect the temperature of the
groundwater. The fact that groundwater is often colder than surface water
can have significant ecological and hydrological effects.

Salinity: The geology and location of the place can affect the salinity of
groundwater. The use of groundwater for irrigation and human use may be
constrained in some regions due to its high salinity.

These are some of the fundamental qualities of groundwater that

management and conservation efforts should take into account.
 Occurrence of Groundwater.

Water that is found in the pore spaces and fractures of soil and rock formations
below the surface of the Earth is known as groundwater. Depending on the local
geology and hydrology, it can be found at different depths in the subsurface
environment.

Infiltration of surface water and precipitation into the soil and rock strata results in
the formation of groundwater. When it rains, some of the water seeps into the
ground and is absorbed by plants, while the remainder runs off into streams and
rivers. A fraction of this water also recharges the groundwater system by infiltrating
into the subterranean environment.
Groundwater Hydraulics: Darcy’s Law.
A key idea in groundwater hydraulics, Darcy's rule describes how
water moves through porous medium like soil and rock formations.
The law, which was first put forth by Henry Darcy in the middle of the
19th century, asserts that the hydraulic gradient and the hydraulic
conductivity of the porous medium are directly related to the rate of
groundwater flow.
 Mathematically, Darcy's law can be expressed as:

Q=-

Where Q is the rate of groundwater flow, K is the hydraulic conductivity of

the porous medium, A is the cross-sectional area of the flow, and

is the hydraulic gradient, which is the change in hydraulic head (or

water pressure) over a given distance.
Darcy's law states that groundwater flows similarly to how water flows
from high elevations to low elevations: from locations with high hydraulic
head to areas with low hydraulic head. How quickly water can pass
through a porous medium is determined by its hydraulic conductivity;
more permeable materials have greater hydraulic conductivity values.
 Steady flow: Simulation of common groundwater problems.
The term "steady flow" describes a situation in which the direction and rate
of groundwater flow are both constant across time. In groundwater
modelling, steady flow simulation is used to both detect and address
common groundwater issues as well as predict how a groundwater system
would behave under various situations.
Some common groundwater problems that can be simulated using steady
flow modelling include: Groundwater contamination, Saltwater intrusion,
Groundwater depletion
Subsidence
Pumping tests and Analysis.
Pumping tests are outdoor experiments carried out to determine an
aquifer's hydraulic characteristics and to assess the operation of the
well by observing how the groundwater system reacts to pumping. The
test involves continuously pumping water from a well while keeping
track of how the water level in the well and surrounding observation
wells changes over time.
 Geophysical Methods.
Based on the physical characteristics of rocks and soils, geophysical technologies
are procedures used to scan and map underlying geologic features and structures.
These techniques are frequently employed in many different professions, such as
engineering, mineral exploration, and environmental evaluation.
•Some common geophysical methods include: Seismic methods
•Electrical methods
•Magnetic methods
•Gravity methods
•Ground-penetrating radar (GPR):
Thank you!!