EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

Course Objectives:
1.Explain embedded systems overview and their design
challenges.
2.Describe the Design & features of different types of
processors.
3.Explain Types and composition of memory & Cache
Architecture.
4.Understand Concepts of MPU & MMU.
5.Explain the Concepts of Interrupts, Survey of Software
Architectures.

1
 UNIT 1
Introduction: Embedded systems overview, Design
challenge – Optimizing design metrics: Common design
metrics, Time to market design metric, NRE &UNIT cost
design metrics & Performance design metric. IC Technology
& Design Technology.
UNIT 2
Custom Single Purpose Processors: Introduction, RT level
combinational & sequential components, Custom Single
Purpose Processor design, optimizing Custom Single
Purpose Processors.
General purpose processors: Introduction, Basic
Architecture, Operation, Programmer’s View &
Development Environment.
Application Specific Instruction Set Processors (ASIPs):
Microcontrollers & Digital Signal Processors. Selecting a
microprocessor. 2
 UNIT 3
Memory: Introduction, Memory write ability & storage permanence,
Common memory types, composing memory.
Cache: Introduction, Memory Hierarchy and Cache, Cache Mapping
Techniques, Cache Replacement Policy, Cache write techniques.
UNIT 4
Memory Protection Unit: Protected Regions, Concepts of initializing
the MPU, Caches & Write buffer.
Memory Management Unit: Virtual Memory, Details of the ARM
MMU: Page Tables & Translation Look aside Buffer, Domains and
memory Access permission, Caches and write buffer.
UNIT 5
Interrupts: Interrupt basics, Shared data problem & Interrupt latency.
Survey of Software Architectures: Round Robin, Round Robin with
Interrupts, Function Queue- scheduling & RTOS architectures.
Introduction to RTOS: Tasks and states, scheduler, tasks and data,
shared data problem, reentrancy, Semaphores and shared data, semaphore
problems & semaphore variants.
3
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Frank Vahid and Embedded system Design,John Wiley,2002
Tony Givargis
2. Andrew N. Sloss, ARM System Developer’s Guide – Designing
Dominic Symes and Optimizing System Software, Elsevier,
and 2004.
Chris Wright
3. David E Simon An Embedded Software Primer, Pearson
Education, 1999

REFERENCE LINKS:
1. David Black-Schaffer https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=qcBIvnQt0Bw&list=PLiwt1iVUib9s2Uo5BeYm
wkDFUh70fJPxX
2. S.Chandramouleeswa https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-
ran, NPTEL wClEbZpJxk&list=PLbMVogVj5nJRDS4w20GO7l4
SepLhuAj9X 4
 Outline
Embedded systems overview
◦ What are they?
Design challenge – optimizing design metrics
Technologies

◦ Processor technologies
◦ IC technologies
◦ Design technologies
5
Embedded systems overview

An Electronic/Electro mechanical system which is

designed to perform a specific function and is a
combination of both hardware and firmware
(Software).
E.g. Electronic Toys, Mobile Handsets, Washing
Machines, Air Conditioners, Automotive Control
Units, Set Top Box, DVD Player etc…

Embedded Systems are:

Unique in character and behavior.
With specialized hardware and software

6
Embedded Systems Vs General Computing Systems:
General Purpose Computing System Embedded System
A system which is a combination of A system which is a combination of
generic hardware and General Purpose special purpose hardware and embedded
Operating System for executing a OS for executing a specific set of
variety of applications applications
Contain a General Purpose Operating May or may not contain an operating
System (GPOS) system for functioning
Applications are alterable The firmware of the embedded system is
(programmable) by user (It is possible pre-programmed and it is non-alterable
for the end user to re-install the by end-user
Operating System, and add or remove
user applications)
Performance is the key deciding factor Application specific requirements (like
on the selection of the system. performance, power requirements,
Always Faster is Better‟ memory usage etc) are the key deciding
factors

7
 A “short list” of Embedded systems
Anti-lock brakes Modems
Auto-focus cameras MPEG decoders
Automatic teller machines Network cards
Automatic toll systems Network switches/routers
Automatic transmission On-board navigation
Avionic systems Pagers
Battery chargers Photocopiers
Camcorders Point-of-sale systems
Cell phones Portable video games
Cell-phone base stations Printers
Cordless phones Satellite phones
Cruise control Scanners
Curbside check-in systems Smart ovens/dishwashers
Digital cameras Speech recognizers
Disk drives Stereo systems
Electronic card readers Teleconferencing systems
Electronic instruments Televisions
Electronic toys/games Temperature controllers
Factory control Theft tracking systems
Fax machines TV set-top boxes
Fingerprint identifiers VCR’s, DVD players
Home security systems Video game consoles
Life-support systems Video phones
Medical testing systems Washers and dryers

And the list goes on and on 8

Classification of Embedded Systems:
Based on Generation.
Based on Complexity & Performance Requirements.
Based on deterministic behavior.
Based on Triggering.

Classification based on Generation

First Generation: The early embedded systems built
around 8-bit microprocessors like 8085 and Z80 and 4-bit
microcontrollers
EX. Stepper motor control units, Digital Telephone Keypads
etc.
Second Generation: Embedded Systems built around 16-bit
microprocessors and 8 or 16-bit microcontrollers, following
the first generation embedded systems
EX. Data Acquisition Systems etc.
9
 Third Generation: Embedded Systems built around high
performance 16/32 bit Microprocessors/controllers, Application
Specific Instruction set processors like Digital Signal
Processors (DSPs), and Application Specific Integrated Circuits
(ASICs). The instruction set is complex and powerful.

EX. Robotics, industrial process control, networking etc.

 Fourth Generation: Embedded Systems built around System
on Chips (SoC’s), Reconfigurable processors and multicore
processors. It brings high performance, tight integration and
miniaturization into the embedded device market.
 EX Smart phone devices, MIDs etc.

10
Classification based on Complexity & Performance
Small Scale: The embedded systems built around low
performance and low cost 8 or 16 bit microprocessors/
microcontrollers. It is suitable for simple applications and
where performance is not time critical. It may or may not
contain OS.
Medium Scale: Embedded Systems built around medium
performance, low cost 16 or 32 bit microprocessors /
microcontrollers or DSPs. These are slightly complex in
hardware and firmware.
Large Scale/Complex: Embedded Systems built around high
performance 32 or 64 bit RISC processors/controllers. It
requires complex hardware and software. These system may
contain multiple processors/controllers and co-units/hardware
accelerators for offloading the processing requirements from
the main processor. It contains RTOS for scheduling,
prioritization and management.
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Classification Based on deterministic behavior
It is applicable for Real Time systems. The application/task
execution behavior for an embedded system can be either
deterministic or non-deterministic.
Soft Real time Systems: Missing a deadline may not be
critical and can be tolerated to a certain degree.
Hard Real time systems: Missing a program/task execution
time deadline can have catastrophic consequences (financial,
human loss of life, etc.)

12
Classification Based on Triggering:
Event Triggered : Activities within the system
(e.g., task run-times) are dynamic and depend upon
occurrence of different events.
Time Triggered: Activities within the system
follow a statically computed schedule (i.e., they are
allocated time slots during which they can take
place) and thus by nature are predictable.

13
Major Application Areas of Embedded Systems:
Consumer Electronics: Camcorders, Cameras etc.
Household Appliances: Television, DVD players, washing
machine, Fridge, Microwave Oven etc.
Home Automation and Security Systems: Air conditioners,
sprinklers, Intruder detection alarms, Closed Circuit Television
Cameras, Fire alarms etc..
Automotive Industry: Anti-lock breaking systems (ABS),
Engine Control, Ignition Systems, Automatic Navigation
Systems etc.
Telecom: Cellular Telephones, Telephone switches, Handset
Multimedia Applications etc.
Computer Peripherals: Printers, Scanners, Fax machines etc.
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 Computer Networking Systems: Network Routers,
Switches, Hubs, Firewalls etc.
 Health Care: Different Kinds of Scanners, EEG, ECG
Machines etc.
 Measurement & Instrumentation: Digital multi meters,
Digital CROs, Logic Analyzers PLC systems etc.
 Banking & Retail: Automatic Teller Machines (ATM)
and Currency counters, Point of Sales (POS)
 Card Readers: Barcode, Smart Card Readers, Hand
held Devices etc. 15
Purpose of Embedded Systems:
Each Embedded Systems is designed to serve the purpose
of any one or a combination of the following tasks.
Data Collection/Storage/Representation
Data Communication
Data (Signal) Processing
Monitoring

Control

Application Specific User Interface

16
Data Collection/Storage/Representation:
Performs acquisition of data from the external world.
The collected data can be either analog or digital.
Data collection is usually done for storage, analysis,
manipulation and transmission.
Data Communication:
Embedded Data communication systems are deployed
in applications ranging from complex satellite
communication systems to simple home networking
systems.
Embedded Data communication systems are dedicated
for data communication.
Network hubs, Routers, switches, Modems etc are
typical examples for dedicated data transmission
embedded systems. 17
Data (Signal) Processing:
Embedded systems with Signal processing
functionalities are employed in applications demanding
signal processing like Speech coding, synthesis, audio
video codec, transmission applications etc.,
Monitoring:
Embedded systems coming under this category are
specifically designed for monitoring purpose.
Measuring instruments like Digital CRO, Digital Multi-
meter, Logic Analyzer etc used in Control &
Instrumentation applications are also examples of
embedded systems for monitoring purpose.

18
Control:
Embedded systems with control functionalities are used
for imposing control over some variables according to the
changes in input variables.
Embedded system with control functionality contains
both sensors and actuators.
Application Specific User Interface:
Embedded systems which are designed for a specific
application.
Contains Application Specific User interface (rather
than general standard UI ) like key board, Display units
etc
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Some common characteristics of embedded
systems
Single-functioned

◦ Executes a single program, repeatedly

Tightly-constrained

◦ Low cost, low power, small, fast, etc.

Reactive and real-time

◦ Continually reacts to changes in the system’s

environment
◦ Must compute certain results in real-time without
delay
◦ For example, a car’s cruise controller continually
monitors and reacts to speed and brake sensors. It must
compute acceleration or deceleration amounts
repeatedly within a limited time. 20
 Digital camera chip
CCD

CCD preprocessor Pixel coprocessor D2A

A2D

lens

JPEG codec Microcontroller Multiplier/Accumulator

DMA controller Display ctrl

Memory controller ISA bus interface UART LCD ctrl

Figure: An embedded system example - a digital camera

Single-functioned - always a digital camera
Tightly-constrained - Low cost, low power, small, fast
Reactive and real-time - only to a small extent

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Design Challenge – optimizing design metrics
The embedded-system designer must of course construct
an implementation that fulfills desired functionality, but a
difficult challenge is to construct an implementation that
simultaneously optimizes numerous design metrics.
Common Design metrics
NRE cost (Non-Recurring Engineering cost): The one-
time monetary cost of designing the system.
Unit cost: the monetary cost of manufacturing each copy
of the system, excluding NRE cost
Size: the physical space required by the system. Often
measured in bytes for software, and gates/transistors for
hardware.
22
 Performance: the execution time or throughput of the
system
 Power: the amount of power consumed by the system
 Flexibility: the ability to change the functionality of
the system without incurring heavy NRE cost
 Time-to-prototype: the time needed to build a
working version of the system
 Time-to-market: the time required to develop a
system to the point that it can be released and sold to
customers
 Maintainability: the ability to modify the system after
its initial release
 Correctness, safety, many more

23
Design metric competition

Power

Performance Size

NRE cost

 Expertise with both software and hardware is needed to

optimize design metrics
 A designer must be comfortable with various technologies in
order to choose the best for a given application and constraints

24
The Time-to-Market Design Metric

Revenues ($)
Time (months)

Figure: Market Window

 Time required to develop a product to the point it can be

sold to customers
 Market window

◦ Period during which the product would have highest

sales
 Average time-to-market constraint is about 8 months
 Delays can be costly 25
 Peak revenue

Revenues ($)
Peak revenue from
delayed entry
On-time

Market rise Market fall

Delayed

D W 2W
On-time Delayed Time
entry entry

Figure: Simplified revenue model for computing loss from delayed entry.
Simplified revenue model
◦ Product life = 2W, peak at W
◦ Time of market entry defines a triangle, representing market
penetration
◦ Triangle area equals revenue
Loss

◦ The difference between the on-time and delayed triangle areas

26
 Peak revenue

Peak revenue from

delayed entry

Revenues ($)
On-time

Market rise Market fall

Delayed

D W 2W
On-time Delayed Time
entry entry
 Area = 1/2 * base * height
◦ On-time = 1/2 * 2W * W
◦ Delayed = 1/2 * (W-D+W)*(W-D)
 Percentage revenue loss = (D(3W-D)/2W2)*100%
 Try some examples
◦ Lifetime 2W=52 wks, delay D=4 wks
 (4*(3*26 –4)/2*26^2) = 22%
◦ Lifetime 2W=52 wks, delay D=10 wks
 (10*(3*26 –10)/2*26^2) = 50%
– Delays are costly! 27
NRE and unit cost metrics
Costs:
◦ Unit cost: the monetary cost of manufacturing each copy
of the system, excluding NRE cost
◦ NRE cost (Non-Recurring Engineering cost): The one-
time monetary cost of designing the system
◦ total cost = NRE cost + unit cost * # of units
◦ per-product cost = total cost / # of units
= (NRE cost / # of units) + unit
cost
Example
◦ NRE=$2000, unit=$100
◦ For 10 units
– total cost = $2000 + 10*$100 = $3000
– per-product cost = $2000/10 + $100 = $300
28
  Compare technologies by costs -- best depends on quantity
◦ Technology A: NRE=$2,000, unit=$100
◦ Technology B: NRE=$30,000, unit=$30
◦ Technology C: NRE=$100,000, unit=$2

$200,000 $200
A A
B B
$160,000 $160
C C
to ta l c o st (x1000)

p e r p ro d uc t c o st
$120,000 $120

$80,000 $80

$40,000 $40

$0 $0
0 800 1600 2400 0 800 1600 2400
Num b e r o f units (vo lu m e ) Num b e r o f units (vo lu m e )

29
The Performance Design Metric
The performance of a system is a measure of how long the
system takes to execute our desired tasks.
It is the most widely used design metric in marketing an
embedded system.
Main measurs of performance are

1.Latency/ response time: Time between task start and end

◦ E.g., processing an image may take 0.25 second.
2.Throughput: No., of tasks that can be processed per unit
time.
◦ E.g., a camera may be able to process 4 images per second.
Speedup: is a common method of comparing the
performance of two systems.
◦ The speedup of system A over system B is determined as
◦ Speedup of A over B = Performance of A / Performance of
B 30
Processor Technology
Technology: A manner of accomplishing a task, especially
using technical processes, methods, or knowledge.
Processor Technology relates to the architecture of the
computation engine used to implement a system’s desired
functionality.
Processor is usually associated with programmable
software processors.

Three key Technologies for Embedded Systems Design:

◦ Processor Technology
◦ IC Technology
◦ Design Technology 31
Processors vary in their customization for the problem at hand

total = 0
for i = 1 to N loop
total += M[i]
end loop
Desired functionality

General-purpose Application- Single-purpose

processor specific processor processor
32
Processor Technology
 General- Purpose Processors- Software

 Single-Purpose Processors- Hardware

 Application- Specific Processors

Controller Datapath Controller Datapath Controller Datapath

Control index
Control Register Control logic Registers
logic
logic and file and State total
State register State
Custom +
register register
ALU
General
IR PC ALU IR PC
Data Data
memory memory
Program Data Program
memory memory memory
Assembly code Assembly code
for: for:

total = 0 total = 0
for i =1 t …N for i =1 t …N
Loop Loop
Total + = M[i] Total + = M[i]

General-purpose (“software”) Application-specific Single-purpose (“hardware”)

33
General-Purpose Processors
 Programmable device used in a
variety of applications
Controller Datapath
◦ Also known as “microprocessor”
Control Register
 Features logic and file
State
◦ Program memory register
General
◦ General datapath with large IR PC ALU
register file and general ALU
 User benefits Program Data
memory memory
◦ Low time-to-market and NRE
Assembly
costs code for:

◦ High flexibility total = 0

for i =1 to …

34
Single-Purpose Processors
 Digitalcircuit designed to execute exactly
one program
 Features Controller Datapath

◦ Contains only the components needed to Control index

logic
execute a single program total
◦ No program memory State
register +
 Benefits

◦ Fast Data
memory
◦ Low power
◦ Small size
◦ Unit cost is low for large quantities while
design time and NRE costs may be high.

35
 Application-Specific Processors
 Programmable processor optimized for a
particular class of applications having common
characteristics, such as embedded control, Controller Datapath
digital signal processing or telecommunications.
Control Registers
◦ Compromise between general-purpose and logic and
single-purpose processors State
register
 Features Custom
ALU
◦ Program memory IR PC

◦ Optimized datapath Data

Program memory
◦ Special functional units memory
 Benefits
Assembly
◦ Some flexibility, good performance, size and code for:

power total = 0
for i =1 to …

36
 IC Technology
The manner in which a digital (gate-level) implementation is mapped onto an
IC
◦ IC: Integrated circuit, or “chip”, is a semiconductor device consisting of a
set of connected transistors and other devices.
◦ IC technologies differ in their customization for a particular design
◦ IC’s consist of numerous layers (perhaps 10 or more)
 Bottom layers form the transistors, middle layers form logic
components and top layers connect these components with wires.
 IC technologies differ with respect to who builds each layer and when

Figure: Shown a simplified CMOS transistor.

gate
IC package IC oxide
source channel drain
Silicon
substrate

37
 Three types of IC technologies
◦ Full-custom/VLSI
◦ Semi-custom ASIC (gate array and standard cell)
◦ PLD (Programmable Logic Device)
Full-custom/VLSI
 Optimize all layers for an Particular embedded system’s
digital implementation
◦ Placing transistors (to minimize interconnection lengths)
◦ Sizing transistors (signal transmissions).
◦ Routing wires
 Benefits

◦ Excellent performance, small size, low power

 Drawbacks

◦ High NRE cost (e.g., $300k), long time-to-market

38
Semi-custom ASIC
Lower layers are fully or partially built

◦ Designers are left with routing of wires and maybe

placing some blocks.
Benefits

◦ Good performance, good size, less NRE cost than a full-

custom implementation.
Drawbacks

◦ Still require weeks to months to develop

39
PLD (Programmable Logic Device)
All layers already exist
◦ Designers can purchase an IC
◦ Connections on the IC are either created or destroyed to implement
desired functionality
PLDs can be divided in to two types

◦ Simple and Complex

◦ One type of simple PLD is PLA, which consists of a programmable
array of AND & OR gates.
◦ Another type of simple PLD is PAL, which just uses one
programmable array to reduce the number of expensive
programmable components.
◦ Complex PLD is Field-Programmable Gate Array (FPGA): general
connectivity among blocks of logic.
Benefits

◦ Low NRE costs, almost instant IC availability

Drawbacks

◦ Bigger, expensive, power hungry, slower 40

Trend (Moore’s law)
The most important trend in embedded systems
◦ Predicted in 1965 by Intel co-founder Gordon Moore
A trend related to ICs: IC transistor capacity has doubled
roughly every 18 months for the past several decades.
10,000
1,000

Logic transistors per 100

chip 10
(in millions) 1
0.1
Note:
0.01
logarithmic scale
0.001
1981

1983

1985

1987

1989

1991

1993

1995

1997

1999

2001

2003

2005

2007

2009
41
Graphical illustration of Moore’s law

1981 1984 1987 1990 1993 1996 1999 2002

10,000 150,000,000
transistors transistors

Leading edge Leading edge

chip in 1981 chip in 2002

Something that doubles frequently grows more quickly than

most people realize!
◦ A 2002 chip can hold about 15,000 1981 chips inside
itself

42
Design Technology
◦Design Technology involves the manner in which we
convert our concept of desired system functionality into an
implementation.
◦The designer must be able to produce larger number of
transistors every year to keep pace with IC technology.
Compilation/ Libraries/ Test/
Synthesis IP Verification

System System Hw/Sw/ Model simulat./

Compilation/Synthesis: specification synthesis OS checkers
Automates exploration and
insertion of implementation
details for lower level.
Behavioral Behavior Cores Hw-Sw
specification synthesis cosimulators
Libraries/IP: Incorporates pre-
designed implementation from
lower abstraction level into
higher level. RT RT RT HDL simulators
specification synthesis components

Test/Verification: Ensures correct

functionality at each level, thus
reducing costly iterations Logic Logic Gates/ Gate
between levels. specification synthesis Cells simulators

To final implementation

Figure: Ideal top-down design process.

43
 There are three main approaches to improving the design

process for increased productivity,

◦ Compilation/synthesis

◦ Libraries/IP

◦ Test/verification

44
Compilation/Synthesis
The designer specify desired functionality in an abstract
manner and automatically generates lower-level
implementation details.
A logical synthesis tool converts Boolean expressions into a
connection of logic gates, called a netlist.
A register-transfer synthesis tool converts finite-state
machines and register transfers into a datapath of RT
components and a controller of Boolean Equations.
A behavioral synthesis tool converts a sequential program
into finite-state machines and register transfers.
A software compiler converts a sequential program to
assembly code, which is essentially register-transfer code.
Finally, a system synthesis tool converts an abstract system
specification into a set of sequential programs on general- and
single-purpose processors. 45
Libraries/IP
Libraries involve reuse of preexisting implementations.
A logic-level library may consist of layouts for gates and
cells.
An RT-level library may consist of layouts for RT
components like resistors, multiplexors , decoders and
functional units.
A behavioral-level library may consist of commonly used
components such as compression components, bus interfaces,
display controllers, and even general-purpose processors.
A system-level library might consist of complete systems
solving particular problems, such as an interconnection of
processors with accompanying operating systems and
programs to implement an interface to the Internet over an
Ethernet network.
46
Test/verification
Test/verification involves ensuring that functionality is
correct.
Simulation is the most common method of testing for
correct functionality.
At the RT-level, HDL simulators execute RT-level
descriptions and provide output waveforms given input
waveforms.
At the system level, a model simulator simulates the initial
system specifications using an abstract computation model,
independent of any processor technology.

47
More Productivity Improves
Standard focus on developing well-defined methods for
specifications, synthesis and libraries.
Common standards include language standards, synthesis
standards, and library standards.
EX: state-machine languages permit direct capture of
functionality as a set of states and transistors, which can then
be translated to other languages like C.

48
End of UNIT-1

49
Exercise Problem.
1.Using the revenue model of Figure, derive the percentage revenue
loss equation for any rise angle, rather than just for 45 degrees
(Hint: you should get the same equation).
2.Compute the percentage revenue loss if D = 5 and W = 10. If the
company whose product entered the market on time earned a total
revenue of $25 million, how much revenue did the company that
entered the market 5 months late loss?
3.The design of a particular disk drive has an NRE cost of $100,000
and a unit cost of $20. How much will we have to add to the cost of
each product to cover our NRE cost, assuming we sell: (a) 100
units, and (b) 10,000 units?
4.For a particular product, you determine the NRE cost and unit cost
to be the following for the three listed IC technologies: FPGA:
($10,000, $50); ASIC: ($50,000, $10); VLSI: ($200,000, $5).
Determine precise volumes for which each technology yields the
lowest total cost.
50
1. tan A = opposite / adjacent
opposite = tan A * adjacent
Revenue loss = ( (on time - delayed) / on time ) * 100%
Area of on time = 1/2 * base * height
= 1/2 * 2W * tan A * W
= tan A * W^2
Area of delay = 1/2 * base * height
= 1/2 * ( W-D+W ) * ( tan A * ( W-D ) )
= 1/2 * ( 2W-D ) * ( tan A * ( W-D ) )
Revenue
Loss = [ ( (tan A * W^2 ) - (1/2 * (2W-D) * tan A * (W-D)) ) / (tan A * W^2 )] * 100%
=[(W^2 - (1/2 * (2W-D) * (W-D)) ) / W^2 ] * 100%
=[(W^2 - 1/2*(2W^2 - 2WD - WD + D^2 ))/W^2 ] * 100%
= [ (W^2 - 1/2*(2W^2 - 3WD +D^2 ))/W^2 ] * 100%
= [ (2W^2 - 2W^2 + 3WD - D^2 ) / 2W^2 ] * 100%
= [ (3WD - D^2 ) / 2W^2 ] * 100%
51
2. percentage revenue loss = ( D * ( 3W - D ) / 2W^2 ) * 100%
= ( 5 * ( 3 * 10 - 5 ) / 2 * 10^2 ) *
100%
= ( 5 * 25 / 200 ) * 100%
= 62.5%

revenue loss = $25,000,000 * 0.625

= $15,625,000
3.
(a) added cost = NRE / # units produced
= $100,000 / 100
= $1,000
(b) added cost = NRE / # units produced
= $100,000 / 10,000
= $10 52
4.
Total cost = NRE cost + (unit cost * # units produced)
FPGA = 10,000 + 50x
ASIC = 50,000 + 10x
VLSI = 200,000 + 5x

10,000 + 50x = 50,000 + 10x

40x = 40,000
x = 1,000
50,000 + 10x = 200,000 + 5x
5x = 150,000 Technolog Amount
y
x = 30,000 FPGA < 1,000 units
ASIC 1,000 – 30,000 units
VLSI > 30,000 units
53