Presented By: Nisarg .

Shah

Whatever be the objective of business firms, achieving optimum efficiency in production or minimizing the cost of production is one of the prime concerns of managers today. Infact, the very survival of the firms in a competitive market depend on their ability to produce at a competitive cost.

In their effort to minimize the cost of production, the fundamental questions which managers are faced with, are: How are the Production and Costs related ? Does substitution between the factors affects the Cost

of Production? How does the technology i.e., factor combination matters in reducing the cost of production ? How can the least cost combination of inputs be achieved ? What happens to rate of return when more plants are added to the firm ? What are the factors which create economies and diseconomies for the firm ?

The theory of production provide answers to these questions by providing tools and techniques to analyze the production conditions and to provide solution to the practical business problems.

Some Basic Concepts

Production:

Production means transforming inputs ( Labour, Machines, Raw materials etc.) into an output.

Input and Output:

An input is a good or service that goes into the process of production. Land, Labour, Capital, Management, Entrepreneur and Technology are classified as inputs. An output is any good or service that comes out of the production process.

Fixed Inputs & Variable Inputs:

Fixed inputs remains fixed (constant) up to certain level of output. Variable inputs change with the change in output.

Short Run and Long Run:

Short run refers to a period of time in which supply of certain inputs i.e., plant, building and machinery etc. is fixed or inelastic. Long run refers to a time period in which the supply of all the inputs is elastic or variable.

Production Function

Production function is defined as the functional relationship between physical inputs ( i.e., factors of production ) and physical outputs, i.e., the quantity of goods produced.

Production function may be expressed as under: Q = f ( K,L) Where ; Q = Output of commodity per unit of time. K = Capital. L = Labour. f = Functional Relationship.

Production function depends on :

Quantities of recourses used. State of technical knowledge. Possible process. Size of firms. Relative prices of factors of production. Combination of factors.

The following points may be emphasized:

Production function represents a purely

technical relationship. Output is the result of joint use of factors of production. Combination of factors depend on the state of technical knowledge.

Every management has to make choice of the production function which gives average cost and maximum average profit.

Laws of Production

Laws of production are of two types:

The law of variable proportions. Laws of returns to scale.

Short Run Production Function: The Law of Variable Proportions Statement of the law: The law of variable proportions states that when more and more units of the variable factor are added to a given quantity of fixed factors, the total product may initially increase at an increasing rate reach the maximum and then decline.

Tabular Presentation of Law of Variable Proportions

Units of Labour

TP

MP

AP

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

80 170 270 368 430 480 505 505 495 470

80 90 100 98 62 50 24 0 -9 -25

80 85 90 92 86 80 72 63 55 47
III Stage II Stage I Stage

Diagrammatical Presentation of Law of Variable Proportions

AP AP

Assumptions of the law: State of Technology remains the same. Input prices remain unchanged, Variable factors are homogeneous.

MP MP

Law of Diminishing Returns and Business Decisions

A Rational producer will never choose to produce in stage III where Marginal Productivity of variable factor is negative. It will stop at the end of the second stage where Marginal Productivity of the variable factor is Zero. At this point the producer is maximizing the total output and will thus be making the maximum use of the available variable factors. A producer will also not choose to produce in Stage I where he will not be making full use of the available resources as the average product of the variable factor continues to increase in this stage. A producer will like to produce in the second stage. At this stage Marginal and Average Product of the variable factor falls but the Total Product of the variable factor is maximum at the end of this stage. Thus stage II represents the stage of rational producer decision.

Long Run Production Function: The Returns to scale

The long run production function is termed as returns to scale. In the long run, the output can be increased by increasing all the factors in the same proportions. The laws of returns to scale is explained by the help of Isoquant curves. An Isoquant curve is the locus of points representing various combination of two inputs, Capital & Labour, yielding the same output. There are three technical possibilities; a) Total output may increase more than proportionately: Increasing returns to scale, b) Total output may increase at a constant rate: Constant Returns to Scale, c) Total output may increase less than proportionately: Diminishing returns to scale.

Three Stages of Law of Diminishing Returns

Marginal Product

Constant Returns Increasing Returns Diminishing Returns

Scale of Inputs

C A P I T A L Isoquant

a
K
L

b
L

L is one way of presenting the production function where two d factors of production are shown. IQ It represents all possible input combinations of the two factors, which are capable of producing the same level of output. O X

LABOUR

Marginal rate of technical substitution indicates the rate at which factors can be substituted at margin in such a way that the total output remains unaltered. MRTS of L for K is defined as the quantity of K which can be given up in exchange for an additional unit of L, so that level of output remains the same. The MRTS at a point on the isoquant can be measured by the slope of isoquant at that point. Slope of IQ at point b = K/L. MRTS = Slope = K/L. MRTS can be known from the ratio of MPP of two factors. As output remains the same at every point of isoquants so loss in physical output from a small reduction in K will be equal to the gain in physical output from a small increment in L.

Marginal rate of technical substitution indicates the rate at which factors can be substituted at margin in such a way that the total output remains unaltered. MRTS of L for K is defined as the quantity of K which can be given up in exchange for an additional unit of L, so that level of output remains the same. The MRTS at a point on the isoquant can be measured by the slope of isoquant at that point. Slope of IQ at point b = K/L. MRTS = Slope = K/L. MRTS can be known from the ratio of MPP of two factors. As output remains the same at every point of isoquants so loss in physical output from a small reduction in K will be equal to the gain in physical output from a small increment in L.

Thus, Loss of output = Gain of output i.e. [(Reduction in K ) X (MPP of K)] = [(Increment in L) X (MPP of L)] OR, K X MPK = L X MPL K = MPL L MPK OR, MRTSLK = MPL ( By definition K = MRTS LK = Slope of isoquant at that point )MPK L Thus, MRTSLK is the ratio of marginal physical productivities of the two factors.

Tabular Presentation of MRTSLK

Combinations

Labour (L)

Capital (K)

MRTS L K

A B C D E

1 2 3 4 5

12 8 5 3 2

4:1 3:1 2:1 1:1

Iso-Cost Lines

It shows all the combinations of the two factors ( say labour and Capital) that the firm can buy with a given set of prices of two factors. It plays an important role to determine combinations of factors, the firms will choose for production ultimately to minimize cost. Y
P R I C E OF C A P I T A L

C B A

PRICE OF LABOUR

D E E

Producers Equilibrium or the Least Cost Combination of Factors

A producer desires to minimise his cost of production for producing a given level of output with the least cost combination of factors.

C A P I T A L

A S

E R IQ IQ2 X IQ1 B

T O

How producers ultimately arrives the point of equilibrium ? The equilibrium is achieved at the point Where MRTS LK = PL/PK ie The slope of isoquant =Slope of isocost Or , MRTS LY = MPL = PX MPK PY Or, MPL = MPK PX PY

LABOUR

Expansion Path

The Line joining the least cost combinations like a, b, c, d. Expansion Path may be defined as the locus of efficient combinations of the factors.
y C
C A P I T A L

B c A a o b IC

Expansion Path IC2 IC1

D E LABOUR

a) Increasing Returns to Scale:

C A P I T A L

Labour

Causes:

Indivisibilities of Factors, High degree of specialization,

b) Constant Returns to Scale

C A P I T A L

Causes:

Factors of production fully utilised. Technology remains unchanged

Labour

c) Diminishing Returns to Scale

C A P I T A L

Labour

Causes:

Managerial Diseconomies. Scarce and Exhaustible resources.

Economies & Diseconomies of Scale The Factors which cause the operations of the Laws of Returns to Scale are grouped as under; Economies of Scale, relates to profit accruing to a business firm. Economies of scale are classified as; Internal economies External economies,

Internal Economies Economies in production Technical advantages,

Advantages of division of Labour and

specialization

Economies in Marketing Managerial Economies Economies in Transportation & storage

External Economies to large size firms arise from the discounts available to it due to;
Large scale of purchase of raw material, Finance at low rate of interest, Low advertising cost, Low Transportation cost.

Diseconomies of scale are the losses accruing to a business firm as a result of large scale production.

Oligopoly Market

Price and Output Determination Under Oligopoly

Oligopoly is defined as the market structure in which there are a few sellers selling a homogeneous or differentiated products. Selling homogeneous products pure oligopoly. Example : industries producing cement, steel, petrol, cooking gas, chemicals, aluminium and sugar. Selling differentiated products differentiated oligopoly. Examples: Automobiles, TV sets, soft drinks, computers, cigarettes etc.

Features of Oligopoly

Small number of sellers : There is a small number of sellers under oligopoly. Conceptually, however, the number of sellers is so small and the market share of each firm is so large that a single firm can influence the market price and business strategy of the rival firms Interdependence of decision making : The competition between the firms takes the form of action, reaction, and counteraction between them. Since the number of firms in the industry is small, the business strategy of each firm in respect of pricing, advertising, product modification is closely watched by the rival firms

Indeterminate Demand Curve: No firm under oligopoly faces the determinate demand curve due to uncertainty of the reactions of rivals.Due to the reactions the firm keeps on shifting its demand curve.If one firm changes the price demand for its product depends on the reaction of its rival for the change in price.

Conti

Barriers to entry arise due to such market conditions as :

Huge investment required Economies of scale Strong consumers loyalty Patents, trademarks,tariff,quota,licencing and other government regulations create artificial barriers to entry of the firms. Existing firms can resort to the price cutting

1. 2.

3.

Advertising: With the high cross elasticity of demand for products, the oligopolist can raise his sales through non- price competition either by advertising or by improving the quality. Both the ways can shift the demand curve in his favour.The oligopolist may adopt regressive advertising to sweep market. Group Behaviour: there is no general acceptable theory of group behaviour . The group behaviour in this market is unpredictable due to Firms in the group may have no common objectives The firm may enter into formal or nonformal collusion to achieve profit maximisation goal by avoiding uncertainity and ruinous rivalary Group may dominated by a leader.

Collusive Oligopoly: Cartels In order to avoid uncertainty arising out of interdependence and to avoid price wars and cut throat competition, firms working under oligopolistic conditions often enter into an agreement regarding a uniform price output policy to be pursued by them. The agreement may be either formal or secret. when the firms enter into such secret agreements, collusive oligopoly prevails. Collusion is of two types:
a) Cartels. b) Price Leadership.

a) In a cartel type of collusive oligopoly, firms jointly fix a price and output policy through agreements. b)Under Price Leadership one firm sets the price and others follow it. The one which sets the price is a price leader and the one who follow him are his followers.

Joint Profit Maximisation Cartel : In this the firms

producing homogeneous products surrender their price and output decisions to a centralised cartel board in the industry The individual firms surrender their price & output decisions to this board . Board determines output quota for the firms, the price to be charged and distribution of industry profits. The central board thus acts as a single monopolist to maximise the joint profits of the oligopolistic industry.

Assumptions:

Only two firms A & B are assumed in the oligopolistic industry. Each firm is selling homogeneous products. Number of buyers is large The market demand curve is given and is known to the cartel. Cost curves are different but known to the cartel Price of the product determines the policy of the cartel Cartel aims at the joint profit maximisation. The joint profit is the sum of profits generated by the two firms based on the pooling agreement. Avoids the price war Joint profits are generally more than the individually earned profits

Distribution of Profits and advantages:

Price and output determination under cartel: - Joint profit maximization

 Price

Leadership:

It is imperfect collusion among the oligopolistic firms in an industry when all firms follow the lead of one big form. There is a tacit agreement among the firms to sell the product at a price set by the leader of industry. If products are homogeneous, a uniform price is set by the leader. It can be the same in case of the differentiated products also. If there is change in the price the leader announces from time to time and the firms follow. In America Examples of the Price Leadership industries are Biscuits, cement, cigrattes,fertilizers,milk steel ,etc.

Price leadership (low- cost model) In the low cost price leadership model ,an oligopolist firm having lower costs that other firms sets a lower price than other firms and this other firms have to follow. Assumptions: There are two firms A and B. Firm A has Lower cost than B. Costs of the two firms are different. They have identical MR curves. Each of the two firms have equal share in the market.The demand curves faced by them is half of the market demand curve. Number of buyers is large Market demand curve is known to both the firms.

Price and Output Determination Under Low-Cost Price Leadership.

The Dominant firm Price Leadership Model:

One large dominant firm and a number of small firms exist in the industry. Dominant firm fixes the price for the entire industry Other firms act as the price takers Dominant firm alone is capable of estimating the demand curve for the product The dominant firm is able to predict the supply curve of the other firms

Price Leadership By The Dominant Firm

Panel (a) where demand curve DD market demand curve for the product. At each price the leader is able to sell the part of the market demand not fulfilled by the supply from the small firms. Thus at price P1 small firms supply the whole of quantity of the product demanded and at that price. The demand for product for the leader is zero. At OP2 price the small firms supply P2C and the remaining part CT of the MD will constitute the demand for the leaders product. The demand curve for the leader is in the panel (b)by curve dl. P2Z in the panel (b) is equal to CT in panel (a). At price P3 the supply of the product by the small firms is zero. The whole market demand P3U will be satisfied by the price leader.

The MR1 is the marginal revenue curve of the price leader corresponding to his demand curve dl. AC and MC are his average and marginal costs curves respectively. the dominant price leader will maximise his profits by producing output OQ and setting price OP. The small firms will together produce PB and the price leader BS equals to PH in panel (b)

Sweezy assumes that if oligopolistic firm lowers the price, its rivals will react by price cut in order to avoid losing their customers. Thus the firm lowering the price will not be able to increase its demand much. This portion its demand curve is relatively inelastic. If an oligopolistic firm increases its price, its rival will not follow and change their prices. Thus, quantity demanded of this firm will fall considerably. This portion of the demand curve is relatively elastic. Thus the demand curve has a kink at the prevailing market price which explains price rigidity.

Non collusive model : The Kinked Demand Curve

The Kinked Demand Curve Hypothesis was put forward by Paul M. Sweezy & by Hall & Hitch.

K P R I C e P0 A D B R quantity MR P MC

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