HYDROLOGY - BASIC CONCEPTS

Hydrograph

Introduction

When a storm occurs it contributes to the stream flow. Various instruments are used to document storm characteristics, for example, rain gauges are used to record period and depth of rainfall, current meter is used to find discharge in streams, etc. The data thus collected is analyzed for its beneficial use. The stream flow characteristics are analyzed by what is called hydrograph analysis.

Continued..

Hydrograph

The graphical relation between any hydrological quantity (stage, velocity, discharge, etc.) & the time is known as a hydrograph. Hydrographs are of three types:

Discharge Hydrograph Stage Hydrograph Velocity Hydrograph

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Hydrograph

Discharge Hydrograph

It is the graphical representation of discharge against time. Generally a hydrograph means discharge hydrograph.
It is the graphical representation of stage against time. Stage hydrograph is useful only for the design of floodprotection works like embankment. It is the graphical representation of velocity against time.

Stage Hydrograph

Velocity Hydrograph

Effective Rainfall

All of the rain usually does not go into the stream but a certain part of it reaches the stream & causes rise in the stream flow while the remaining part of rain is accounted for in various forms of precipitation losses. The portion of rainfall which contributes to stream flow is called Effective Rainfall.

Basin Lag or Time Lag

A useful index to define the location of the peak of the hydrograph is the basin lag, which is the time difference between the center of mass of the rainfall and the center of the mass of the hydrograph. Rise of the stream flow depends upon the effective rainfall and type of the soil, and time lag depends upon type of area & also upon characteristics of rainfall (Figure 1).

Continued..

Basin Lag or Time Lag

Hydrograph Lag
5.0 4.5 4.0 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 0 2 4 Time, t
Figure 1: Time Lag in Surface Runoff
DRO Hydrograph

Discharge, Q

10

Parts of a Hydrograph

A hydrograph consists of three Parts (Fig 2):

The rising Limb BC The crest or peak C. The falling Limb or Recession curve CDE

The shape of the rising limb depends upon the storm characteristics which are the duration of rainfall, intensity of rainfall, areal distribution of the rainfall, etc.

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Parts of a Hydrograph

The crest segment is controlled by the storm characteristics and the distribution of streams in the area, which further depends upon geological structure of the area. The falling limb depends upon the control on storage release, which itself depends upon the geological structure.

Continued..

Parts of a Hydrograph
Hydrograph
6.0 5.0

C Rising Limb A B
0 2 4

Crest

Discharge, Q

4.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 0.0

Falling Limb or Recession Curve E

6 Time, t
DRO Hydrograph

10

12

Fig 2: Parts of Hydrograph

Components of Hydrograph

A hydrograph normally consists of the four components:

Channel Precipitation Direct Runoff (DRO) Inter Flow or Sub-surface Flow Ground or Base Flow

Hydrograph Analysis

Separation of Hydrograph Components

Hydrograph Analysis means dividing total runoff indicated by the hydrograph into its (abovementioned) components, of which direct runoff (DRO) and Base Flow are more important. The separation of hydrograph components is done by one of the following four methods.

Straight Line Method Fixed Base Length Method Variable Slope Method Recession Curve Equation
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Hydrograph Analysis

Straight Line Method

A hydrograph as shown in Figure 3. From point A draw a straight horizontal line which meets the falling limb of hydrograph at point B. Above line AB is the direct runoff and below this line is the base flow. The volumes of direct runoff and base flow (i.e. area under the curve) can be calculated by any suitable method.

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Hydrograph Analysis

The Straight Line Method for separation of hydrograph has the advantage of producing an extremely long time base for the direct runoff hydrograph. The time base varies from storm to storm depending on the flow at the point of rise. It is a computationally easy method.

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Hydrograph Analysis
Hydrograph
6.0 5.0

Discharge, Q

4.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 0.0 0 2 4 6 Time, t

Horozontal Line from the point of rise in rising limb of hydrograph

B
8 10 12

DRO Hydrograph

Fig. 3: Separation of Hydrograph Components

Continued..

Hydrograph Analysis

Fixed Base Length Method Let us have the hydrograph shown in Figure 4. From point A (existing prior to the storm) extend the curve to point B which is vertically below the peak. Now draw a line from point B to point C on the hydrograph equal to a distance on X-axis given by equation below: N = Ad0.2 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 Where, N = Length of time in days, and Ad = Drainage area in square miles This line will meet the falling limb at, say point C. Join the point B to C by a line BC. Area below ABC is the base flow and that above it is the direct runoff.
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Hydrograph Analysis
Hydrograph
600 500
0.2

A Extended Recession Curve

Discharge, Q

400 300 200 100 0 0

6 Time, t
DRO Hydrograph

10

12

Figure 4: Separation of Base Flow by Fixed Base Length Method Continued..

Hydrograph Analysis

Variable Slope Method

This method is based on the fact that if water rises in the stream the water level in the stream becomes greater than the adjoining ground water table level. As a result the flow occurs from the stream to the groundwater and is stored there as bank storage. Refer to Figure 5, below. Take a point A on the previous recession curve, and the line AE by extending the previous recession curve. Point E is under the peak.

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Hydrograph Analysis

Now take a point B on the recession curve and extend it backward. Take a point C on recession curve where the recession curve is changing slope. This point is called the point of inflexion. Draw a vertical line from the point C. It cuts the line drawn backward from point B, at point D. Join point E and point D. The area under the line AEDB shows the base flow component

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Hydrograph Analysis
Hydrograph

600 500 400

Extended Recession Curve C

Discharge, Q

300
200 100 0 0 2 4 6 A E D

Point of Inflexion

10

12

Time, t
DRO Hydrograph

Figure 5: Separation of Base Flow by Variable Slope Method Continued..

Hydrograph Analysis

This method is not a well defined one. It depends upon experience, so it may vary from one expert to another. In general, Straight Line Method is the simplest and easiest but also the least accurate. Fixed Base Method is widely used and gives practically good results. Whereas Variable Slope Method is not commonly used and is difficult but can give better results depending upon the expertise of the person using it.

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Hydrograph Analysis

Recession Curve Equation

The recession side of the hydrograph is formed of the surface recession, interflow recession and base flow recession. Although the interflow, because of similar characteristics, is taken as part of the surface runoff in the hydrograph analysis. There are means to separate the three components on the basis of the exponential recession equation of the form.

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Hydrograph Analysis

The equation is: Q = Q0 e t - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2 Where, Q0 = initial discharge Q = discharge a time interval afterwards = recession constant The equation can be written in a general form. Q t+1 = Q t e -t Taking log on both sides log ( Qt+1) = log (Q t e -t) log Qt+1 = log Qt - t log e - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3 Graph of this equation for different recession constants will give the components of hydrograph.

Factors Affecting Hydrograph Shape

Hydrograph shape depends on climatic and catchment characteristics. Among the climatic characteristics the most important are the rainfall intensity, duration and weather. Among the catchment characteristics the topography and geological conditions are more important. These are discussed below:

Storm Characteristics Catchment Characteristics

Storm Characteristics

Intensity of Rainfall

The intensity of rainfall has a predominant effect on the shape of the hydrograph. If other conditions remain the same, a higher intensity storm will produce a rapid rise in the hydrograph and a higher peak than that in case of a low intensity rainfall. Such floods give little warning time and so are dangerous.

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Storm Characteristics

Duration of Rainfall

The duration of rainfall is important if it is greater than the time of concentration (defined as the time of travel from the farthest point in the catchment area to the gauging station). In such a situation, if the rainfall of certain intensity occurs uniformly, the whole of the catchment area is contributing runoff at the gauging station and the hydrograph attains its high peak.

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Storm Characteristics

The runoff will remain constant at the peak rate if the rainfall occurs for duration longer than the time of concentration. If rainfall of the same intensity occurs for duration less than the time of concentration, the hydrograph will rise to a smaller peak.

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Storm Characteristics

Weather

The shape of the hydrograph greatly depends on the seasonal distribution of rainfall. During summer losses due to evaporation may produce a small peak hydrograph. On the other hand, in winter, losses are small with the result that even a small intensity storm may produce a relatively rapid rise and high peak of the hydrograph. Antecedent soil moisture conditions (generally being higher in winter) are important as for high soil moisture; the storm will produce more runoff.

Catchment Characteristics

Size of Catchment The catchment area affects the stream flow in a variety of ways. Even if the intensity and depth of precipitation is assumed to be constant, The hydrograph of a smaller catchment rises to its peak and then recedes more rapidly than that for a larger catchment, because for the latter, it takes longer for the runoff to reach the gauging station. The hydrograph of a larger catchment area, therefore, has broader base than that of a smaller one. Moreover, the larger the area, the greater will be the heterogeneity in soil and vegetation cover, with a consequent effect on the stream flow of each part of the catchment. The vegetation cover increases the time of concentration.

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Catchment Characteristics

The hydrograph of a larger catchment area, therefore, has broader base than that of a smaller one. Moreover, the larger the area, the greater will be the heterogeneity in soil and vegetation cover, with a consequent effect on the stream flow of each part of the catchment. The vegetation cover increases the time of concentration.

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Catchment Characteristics

Shape of the Catchment Area

The shape of the catchment area affects stream flow by altering the time of concentration and the pattern of drainage tributaries. If the length of the catchment along the main stream is less than the width across the same stream, separate runoff peaks generated by a heavy rainfall are likely to reach the gauging station at the same time from the tributaries, with the result that the flood peak in the main stream increases. Thus a hydrograph with a high peak and narrow base is obtained.

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Catchment Characteristics

However, if the length of the catchment along the main stream is larger than width, the tributaries will be of shorter length and contribution from each tributary area is likely to reach the gauging stations at intervals. After an intense storm over the whole of the catchment area there will be some lag between the times at which the peak from each tributary reaches the gauging station. The hydrograph will therefore, have a low peak and broader base, because the remote tributaries will continue contributing for some time even after the rain fall has stopped.

Continued..

Catchment Characteristics

Elevation of the Catchment

The elevation of the catchment also plays an important role in some hydrologic characteristics of hydrograph, particularly due to variation in temperature and precipitation. The temperature reduces with the increase in elevation with the result that above a certain elevation, the temperature becomes so low that all precipitation falls as snow.

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Catchment Characteristics

In the Indo-Pakistan Sub-continent, contribution from areas, at altitude 15,000 ft. above the mean sea level, is mainly due to snowmelt. The floods from snowmelt are of usually low peak and broader base.

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Catchment Characteristics

Catchment Slope

The slope of the catchment affects stream flow by reducing the rate of infiltration due to increased speed of water-movement towards drainage channels. The steeper the slope the faster will be the flow and rise in the hydrograph. The hydrograph in such a situation will have higher peak and smaller base.

Unit Hydrograph

While designing hydraulic structures such as, we are mostly interested in estimating maximum probable rate of runoff. Various methods of estimating maximum probable rate of runoff are as under: Frequency Analysis

It may be used provided adequate stream flow records are available.

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Unit Hydrograph

Empirical Formulae

Involving various physical characteristics of the basin i. e.

Q = C I A (Rational Formula) - - - - - - - - - - - - 4 Where, I = Intensity of rainfall, C = Constant, and A = Area of cross-section.

Very detailed rainfall-runoff models have been developed which estimate losses separately and hence calculate the direct runoff

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Unit Hydrograph

Flood Routing

Flood Routing will be discussed in detail later.

Of the four methods of estimating maximum probable rate of runoff, the unit hydrograph method is being discussed in detail in this discussion.

Unit Hydrograph Method

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Unit Hydrograph

The T-hour unit hydrograph may be defined as a hydrograph of direct runoff resulting from unit rainfall excess of a duration T hours having occurred uniformly all over the catchment and having a constant rate of occurrences. The unit hydrograph theory is based on principles of linearity of runoff to rainfall excess and superposition. This is a linear process applied to a non-linear situation.

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Unit Hydrograph

Physical characteristics of the basin remain relatively constant. The variable characteristics of the storm cause variation in the shape of resulting hydrograph. The storm characteristics as discussed earlier are the rainfall duration, time-intensity pattern, areal distribution of rainfall and the amount of rainfall.

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Unit Hydrograph

Rainfall Duration

The volume under unit hydrograph is always the same for a given catchment and is equal to one unit say one inch of runoff (note that volume of one inch of runoff means that one inch of rainfall excess over the whole catchment. The actual volume will be the catchment area multiplied by one). Peak value for a lesser duration unit hydrograph is higher and is sharp, but the peak value for a higher duration unit hydrograph is lower with larger base length.

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Unit Hydrograph

Time Intensity Pattern

An infinite number of hydrographs would be required if an attempt is made to draw separate unit hydrograph for each of the possible timeintensity patterns. Practically the unit hydrograph may be based only on an assumption of uniform intensity. Higher-intensity storms will have higher peak with low base, and vice versa.

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Unit Hydrograph

Areal Distribution of Rainfall

The unit hydrograph is based upon uniformly distributed rainfall over whole of the catchment. So the actual flood hydrograph has to be estimated accordingly from the unit hydrograph taking into account the effect of areal distribution of rainfall.

Derivation of Unit Hydrograph

The following steps are followed in deriving a unit hydrograph:

Select an isolated storm, for which reliable rainfall and runoff data are available. Separate the base flow from the total runoff hydrograph and calculate the volume of direct runoff. Divide the ordinates of direct runoff by the effective rainfall. The resulting hydrograph is a unit hydrograph for the catchment area for the given duration of excess rainfall. Estimation of rainfall excess is illustrated in numerical Example 1.

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Derivation of Unit Hydrograph

A unit hydrograph derived from a single storm may have some error, and it is desirable to average the unit hydrograph from several storms of the same duration. This should not be an arithmetic average of concurrent coordinates; since, if peaks do not occur at the same time, the average peak will be lower than many of the individual peaks. The proper procedure is to compute the average of the peak flows and times to peak. The average unit hydrograph is then sketched to conform to those of the other graphs, passing through the computed average peak, and having a volume of one-inch.

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Derivation of Unit Hydrograph

Example 1

From the data given in Table 1 below, derive a 6hour unit hydrograph if this data is obtained from a six-hours duration storm and the catchment area is 3,200 square kilometers.

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Derivation of Unit Hydrograph

Date Time (day) (1) (2) Discharge (m/s) (3) Base Flow (m/s) (4)

Table 1: Data for Unit hydrograph

11-Jan
12-Jan 13-Jan 14-Jan 15-Jan 16-Jan 17-Jan 18-Jan 19-Jan 20-Jan 21-Jan 22-Jan 23-Jan 24-Jan 25-Jan 26-Jan 27-Jan

1st
2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th 12th 13th 14th 15th 16th 17th

21
21 21 20 20 20 20 20 521 160 82 63 59 53 47 45 38

21
21 21 20 20 20 20 20 11 21 29 35 47 53 47 45 38

Derivation of Unit Hydrograph

Solution

The calculations are shown in Table 2. The Direct Runoff (DRO) is obtained by subtracting base flow from discharge values. The DRO is then multiplied by time interval to get total volume. This total volume is divided by catchment area to get depth of effective rainfall in centimeters spread uniformly over whole catchment. By definition of unit hydrograph, its ordinates are obtained by dividing ordinates of DRO by effective rain.

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Derivation of Unit Hydrograph

Date Time (day) (1) 11-Jan (2) 1st 2nd 3rd Discharge (m/s) (3) 21 21 21 Base Flow (m/s) (4) 21 21 21 DRO (m/s) (5)=(3)-(4) 0 0 0 Volume (x106 m) (6) 0.00 0.00 0.00 Ordinates of Unit Hydrograph (m/s) (7)=(5)/Eff. Rain 0.00 0.00 0.00

Table 2: Data for Unit hydrograph

12-Jan 13-Jan

14-Jan
15-Jan 16-Jan 17-Jan 18-Jan 19-Jan 20-Jan 21-Jan 22-Jan 23-Jan 24-Jan 25-Jan 26-Jan 27-Jan

4th
5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th 12th 13th 14th 15th 16th 17th

20
20 20 20 20 521 160 82 63 59 53 47 45 38

20
20 20 20 20 11 21 29 35 47 53 47 45 38

0
0 0 0 0 510 139 53 28 12 0 0 0 0

0.00
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 44.06 12.01 4.58 2.42 1.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

0.00
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 255.00 69.50 26.50 14.00 6.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Total Volume 64.11 x106 m Area 3200 x106 m Volume 32.05x106 m

Effective Rain 2.00cm

Effective Rain 1.00 cm

Derivation of Unit Hydrograph

The resulting unit hydrograph and DRO hydrograph are shown in Fig. 6
One-Day Unit Hydrograph
600

Discharge (m/s)

500

400

300

200

100

0 0 5 10 Time (Day) 15 20

Total Hydrograph

DRO Hydrograph

One Day Unit Hydrograph

Fig 6 Developing a 6-hr unit hydrograph

Derivation of Hydrograph from a Unit Hydrograph

Once the unit hydrograph of certain duration is determined, it can be used to compute a hydrograph of the same duration. In order to derive the hydrograph of same duration as that of the unit hydrograph, we have to proceed in reverse to the process used to derive unit hydrograph

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Derivation of Hydrograph from a Unit Hydrograph

The procedure will be as follows:

The unit hydrograph of a certain duration is given. Derive the ordinates of direct runoff hydrograph by multiplying the unit hydrograph ordinates by effective rainfall. Add base flow to the ordinates of direct runoff hydrograph to get total runoff hydrograph. The peak of this hydrograph gives the maximum flow due to the storm.

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Derivation of Hydrograph from a Unit Hydrograph

Example 2

Given the unit hydrograph of 4-hour duration (Table 3), calculate the ordinates of total runoff hydrograph of same duration from an excess precipitation of 10 cm. Assume constant Base Flow of 14 m3/sec.

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Derivation of Hydrograph from a Unit Hydrograph

Date Time (Hours) (1) 1-Jan (2) 12 Noon Ordinates of Unit Hydrograph (m/s) (3) 0.00

24 Midnight 2-Jan 12 Noon

24 Midnight 3-Jan 12 Noon 24 Midnight 4-Jan 12 Noon 24 Midnight

3.00 17.00
34.00 51.00 17.00 6.00 0.00

Table 3:Data for unit hydrograph and derivation of total runoff hydrograph. Continued..

Derivation of Hydrograph from a Unit Hydrograph

Solution

The excess rainfall has been reported as 10cm. The ordinates of unit hydrograph are simply multiplied by excess rainfall to get ordinates of Direct Runoff (DRO). Once the ordinates of DRO are obtained, base flow is added to it to get Total flow ordinates. These computations are given in Table 4.

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Derivation of Hydrograph from a Unit Hydrograph

Date Time Time Ordinates of Unit Hydrograph (m/s) (4) 0.00 3.00 17.00 34.00 51.00 17.00 6.00 0.00 DRO Base Flow Total Flow

(Hours) (1) 1-Jan (2) 12 Noon 24 Midnight 2-Jan 12 Noon 24 Midnight 3-Jan 12 Noon 24 Midnight 4-Jan 12 Noon 24 Midnight

(Hours) (3) 0 12 24 48 60 72 84 96

(m/s) (5)=(4) x Excess Rainfall Depth 0 30 170 340 510 170 60 0

(m/s) (6) 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14

(m/s) (7)=(5)+(6) 14 44 184 354 524 184 74 14

Table 4: Derivation of total runoff hydrograph.

Derivation of Hydrograph from a Unit Hydrograph

The unit hydrograph, DRO hydrograph and total hydrograph is shown in Fig. 7
Derivation of Total Runoff Hydrograph

Fig. 7: Total Runoff Hydrograph

600 550 500 450 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 0 20 40 60 Time (Hours)
12 Hour Unit Hydrograph DRO Hydrograph Total Runoff Hydrograph

Flow (m/s)

80

100

120

S Curve

The S curve is hydrograph obtained by summation of infinite number of unit hydrographs of given duration each lagged by time interval equal to the duration of the given hydrograph. The S curve can be used to derive unit hydrograph of any desired duration. The Derivation of the S curve is very simple. We keep on adding given unit hydrograph ordinates each lagged by time equal to the duration of given hydrograph from the previous one till we obtain a constant value after addition or it starts fluctuating between some values.

S Curve

Example 3

Given is a unit hydrograph of 2 hour duration (column 2 of Table 5). Derive the 2 hours duration S curve.
Time (Hours)
0 2 4

Flow m/s
0 95 164

6
8 10 12 14

121
91 54 18 0

Table 5: Ordinates of 2 -Hour Unit Hydrograph

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S Curve

SOLUTION

First, we derive S curve: The calculations are shown in Table 6. In this table ordinates of unit hydrograph of 2-hour duration are given in column 2. Column 1 is time in hours. Other columns have ordinates in m/s. Columns 3 to 14 show lagged unit hydrographs. Column 15 is the addition which is the S curve. The S curve is shown in Figure 8

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S Curve
Table 6: Unit hydrograph data and derivation of S curve.
(1) 0 2 4 (2) 0 95 164 0 95 0 (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) 0 95 259

6
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38

121
91 54 18 0

164
121 91 54 18 0

95
164 121 91 54 18 0

0
95 164 121 91 54 18 0 0 95 164 121 91 54 18 0 0 95 164 121 91 54 18 0 0 95 164 121 91 54 18 0 0 95 164 121 91 54 18 0 0 95 164 121 91 54 18 0 0 95 164 121 91 54 18 0 0 95 164 121 91 54 18 0 0 95 164 121 91 54 18 0 0 95 164 121 91 54 18 0

380
471 525 543 543 543 543 543 543 543 543

S Curve
S Curve
600 500

Flow (m/s)

400 300 200 100 0 0 10 20 Time (Hours) 30 40

Figure 8: S Curve

Derivation of Any Duration Unit Hydrograph

The procedure for derivation of any required duration unit hydrograph from a given-duration unit hydrograph is described below:

Derive the S-Curve (as per procedure explained above). Offset the position of the S-curve for a period equal to the desired duration of hydrograph to be derived. This is called the lagged S-curve. Subtract the ordinates of lagged S-curve from the original S-curve at the respective time intervals. The ordinates of unit hydrograph of required duration are obtained by multiplying the difference obtained in Step 3 with the ratio given duration over required duration (i. e. multiply by the ratio = given duration/desired duration)
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Derivation of Any Duration Unit Hydrograph

Example 4

Given is unit hydrograph of 2-hours duration (Column (2), Table 5 of Example 3). Find 6-hours unit hydrograph for the same catchment.
The derivation of S curve is given in Example 3. Using that S curve the derivation of 6 hours unit hydrograph is given below in Table 7.

Solution

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Derivation of Any Duration Unit Hydrograph

The given 2 hr hydrograph and developed 6 hr hydrographs are shown in Figure 9. It may be noted that increasing the duration of unit hydrograph has decreased peak flow.
Time 2-hour Unit Hydrograph Ordinates (2) 0 95 164 121 91 54 18 0 S-Curve Lagged SCurve (4) Difference 6 Hour Unit Hydrograph Ordinates = (5) x 2 / 6 0 32 86 127 125 89 54 24 6 0

(1) 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18

(3) 0 95 259 380 471 525 543 543 543 543

(5)=(3)-(4) 0 95 259

0 95 259 380 471 525 543

380 376 266 163 72 18 0

Table 7: Derivation of 6 hours unit hydrograph from 2 hours unit hydrograph.

6 Hour UH from 2 Hour UH

180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Flow (m/s)

Time (Hours)
2 Hour Unit Hydrograph 6 Hour Unit Hydrograph

Figure 9: Two Hour and Six Hour Unit Hydrograph

Composite Hydrograph

The stream flow hydrograph may be due to more than one storm. In that case we have to separate the effect of each storm. This is composite hydrograph separation. Here the analogy is used that ordinates of composite hydrograph are proportional to intensity of rainfall.

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Example 5

Given is hydrograph resulting from two storms each of 6 hours duration (Table 8). The rainfall intensity of first storm is 0.8 cm and that of second storm is 0.6 cm each of 6 hr duration. Separate the hydrograph of both storms and find 6 hr unit hydrograph for each storm.

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Solution Refer to Table 9. The following steps illustrate the procedure

Total rainfall is 0.8 + 0.6 = 1.4 cm. The contribution of second storm relative to the first storm is 0.6 / 0.8 = 0.75. The ordinates of first hydrograph are, therefore obtained by subtracting effect of second hydrograph from composite hydrograph. Since second storm occurs 6 hours later than the first one, the first ordinate of composite hydrograph is due to contribution of first storm. Therefore first ordinate of first hydrograph is 750 - 0 = 750.

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The second ordinate is obtained by subtracting (0.6 / 0.8) x 750 = 562.50 from second ordinate of composite hydrograph i.e. 1400 - 562.50 = 837.50. The third ordinate of first storm hydrograph is obtained by subtracting 0.75 x 837.50 = 628.12 from third ordinate of composite hydrograph i.e. 1671.88 and so on. The calculations are shown in table 5.2

Continued..

The ordinates of second hydrograph are obtained simply by subtracting ordinates of first hydrograph from composite hydrograph. For unit hydrograph ordinates of each hydrograph are divided by their respective rainfall intensities

Continued..

Date

Time (Hours)
0 6 12

Composite Hydrograph (cumecs)

750.00 1,400.00

Date

Time (Hours)
60 66 72

Composite Hydrograph (cumecs)

19,100.00 15,000.00 11,400.00

Date

Time (Hours)
120 126 132

Composite Hydrograph (cumecs)

3,300.00 2,900.00 2,600.00

22-04-65

25-04-65

27-04-65

18
23-04-65 24 30 36 42 24-04-65 48 54

2,300.00
3,000.00 7,000.00 13,000.00 23,000.00 29,700.00 25,000.00 26-04-65

78
84 90 96 102 108 114

9,300.00
7,800.00 6,300.00 5,700.00 4,800.00 4,000.00 3,700.00 29-04-65 28-04-65

138
144 150 156 162 168

2,100.00
1,700.00 1,300.00 900.00 600.00 -

Table 8. Data of Composite Hydrograph Continued..

Table 9: Separation of Component Hydrographs

Date Time Composite Hydrograph (cumecs) First 6 Hour Hydrograph (0.8 cm) Second 6 Hour Hydrograph (0.6 cm) 6 Hour Unit Hydrograph (First Storm) 6 Hour Unit Hydrograph (Second Storm)

(Hours) 22-04-65 0

6
12 18 23-04-65 24 30 36 42 24-04-65 48 54 60 66

750.00
1,400.00 2,300.00 3,000.00 7,000.00 13,000.00 23,000.00 29,700.00 25,000.00 19,100.00 15,000.00

750.00
837.50 1,671.88 1,746.09 5,690.43 8,732.18 16,450.87 17,361.85 11,978.61 10,116.04 7,412.97

562.50 628.13 1,253.91 1,309.57 4,267.82 6,549.13 12,338.15 13,021.39 8,983.96 7,587.03

937.50
1,046.88 2,089.84 2,182.62 7,113.04 10,915.22 20,563.58 21,702.31 14,973.27 12,645.05 9,266.21

937.50 1,046.88 2,089.84 2,182.62 7,113.04 10,915.22 20,563.58 21,702.31 14,973.27 12,645.05

Continued..

Date

Time

Composite Hydrograph

First 6 Hour Hydrograph

Second 6 Hour Hydrograph

6 Hour Unit Hydrograph (First Storm)

6 Hour Unit Hydrograph (Second Storm)

(Hours) 25-04-65 72 78 84 90 26-04-65 96 102 108 114 27-04-65 120 126 132 138

(cumecs) 11,400.00 9,300.00 7,800.00 6,300.00 5,700.00 4,800.00 4,000.00 3,700.00 3,300.00 2,900.00 2,600.00 2,100.00

(0.8 cm) 5,840.27 4,919.80 4,110.15 3,217.38 3,286.96 2,334.78 2,248.92 2,013.31 1,790.02 1,557.49 1,431.88 1,026.09

(0.6 cm) 5,559.73 4,380.20 3,689.85 3,082.62 2,413.04 2,465.22 1,751.08 1,686.69 1,509.98 1,342.51 1,168.12 1,073.91 7,300.34 6,149.74 5,137.69 4,021.73 4,108.70 2,918.47 2,811.14 2,516.64 2,237.52 1,946.86 1,789.85 1,282.61 9,266.21 7,300.34 6,149.74 5,137.69 4,021.73 4,108.70 2,918.47 2,811.14 2,516.64 2,237.52 1,946.86 1,789.85

Continued..

Date

Time

Composite Hydrograph

First 6 Hour Hydrograph

Second 6 Hour Hydrograph

6 Hour Unit Hydrograph (First Storm)

6 Hour Unit Hydrograph (Second Storm)

(Hours)

(cumecs)

(0.8 cm)

(0.6 cm)

28-04-65

144
150 156 162

1,700.00
1,300.00 900.00 600.00 -

930.43
602.17 448.37 263.72 -

769.57
697.83 451.63 336.28 -

1,163.04
752.72 560.46 329.65

1,282.61
1,163.04 752.72 560.46 -

Composite hydrograph along with component hydrograph is shown in Figure 10.

29-04-65 168

Continued..

SEPARATION OF COMPOSITE HYDROGRAPH

35,000

30,000

Discharge (cumec)

25,000

20,000

15,000

10,000

5,000

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Time (Hours)
Composite Hydrograph First 6 hr Hydrograph Second 6 hr Hydrograph

Fig 10: Separation of Component Hydrographs from Composite Hydrograph

Example 6

Develop a complex hydrograph for the following data given in Table 10, Take R1 / R2 = 1.2

Time

10

11

q1

200

400

1000

2800

1400

900

700

480

200

Table 10

Continued..

Solution

Table 11 below gives calculations for determination of q2 & Q, in which ordinates of q2 have been calculated by using a modified but simple formula given in the table.
n 0 1 2 3 TIME 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 q1 0 200 400 1000 2800 1400 900 700 0 240 480 1200 3360 1680 1080 Ordinates of q2=(R1/R2)xq1(n1). Discharge Q of complex hydrograph 0 200 640 1480 4000 4760 2580 1780

Table 11

4 5 6 7

8
9 10 11

9
10 11 12

480
200 0

840
576 240 0

1320
776 240 0

Continued..

Composite hydrograph along with component hydrograph is shown in Figure 11.

COMPLEX HYDROGRAPH

6000 5000

DISCHARGE

4000 3000

2000
1000 0 0 2 4 6 TIME 8 10 12 14

Figure 6.11 Continued..

Example 7

Repeat example 6 for the case when ordinates of Q are given (as shown in Table 12 below) for its separation into its components q1 & q2 with R1/R2 =1.2

Continued..

Solution:
Table 12: Calculations for Separation of Complex hydrograph
n TIME Discharge Q of complex hydrograph
0 200 640 1480 4000 4760 2580 1780 1320 776 240 0

Ordinates of q1 = Qn (R1/R2) x q1(n-1).

0 200 400 1000 2800 1400 900 700 480 200 0

Ordinates of q2 = (R1/R2)xq1(n-1).

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

0 240 480 1200 3360 1680 1080 840 576 240 0

Continued..

COMPONENTS OF A COMPLEX HYDROGRAPH

6000 5000

DISCHARGE

4000 3000 2000 1000 0 0 2 4 6 TIME 8 10 12 14

Figure 12: (With Example 7)

Example 8

Develop a complex hydrograph for the following data given in Table 13, Take R1 / R2 = 1.2 and R1 / R3 = 1.5
1 0 2 200 3 400 4 1000 5 2800 6 1400 7 900 8 700 9 480 10 200 11 0

Time q1

Table 13

Solution

Table 14 below gives calculations for determination of q2, q3 and Q, in which ordinates of q2 and q3 have been calculated by using modified but simple formulae given in the table.

TIME

q1

Ordinates of q2=(R1/R2)xq1(n-1).

Ordinates of q3=(R1/R3)xq1(n-2).

Discharge Q of complex hydrograph

(1)
0 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 0 200 400 1000

(2)

(3)

(1) + (2) + (3)

0

0 240 480 0 300

200 640 1780

4
5 6 7 8

5
6 7 8 9

2800
1400 900 700 480

1200
3360 1680 1080 840

600
1500 4200 2100 1350

4600
6260 6780 3880 2670

9
10 11 12

10
11 12 13

200
0

576
240 0

1050
720 300 0

1826
960 300 0

Table 14

COMPLEX HYDROGRAPH
8000 7000

DISCHARGE

6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 0 2 4 6 TIME 8 10 12 14

Figure 13 shows complex hydrograph.

Example 9

Repeat example 8 for the case when ordinates of Q are given (as shown in Table 15 below) for its separation into its components q1, q2 & q3 with R1/R2 =1.2 & R1/R3 =1.5.

Time

Discharge Q of complex hydrograph 0 200 640 1780 4600 6260 6780 3880 2670 1826 960 300 0

Ordinates of q1 = Qn - (R1/R2)xq1(n-1) (R1/R3)xq1(n-2). 0 200 400 1000 2800 1400 900 700 480 200 0

Ordinates of q2 = (R1/R2)x q1(n-1).

Ordinates of q3=(R1/R3)x q1(n-2).

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

0 240 480 1200 3360 1680 1080 840 576 240 0 0 300 600 1500 4200 2100 1350 1050 720 300 0

Table 15: Calculations for Separation of Complex hydrograph (see Fig. 14)

COMPONENTS OF A COMPLEX HYDROGRAPH

DISCHARGE
8000 6000 4000 2000 0 0 5 TIME
Figure 14

10

15

Synthetic Hydrograph

For un-gauged catchments, unit hydrograph developed from characteristics of similar catchments is called Synthetic hydrograph. Synthetic hydrograph is obtained by mathematically correlating catchment characteristics. Different approaches are available for developing a synthetic hydrograph, some of which are:

Bernards method McCarthys Method Snyders Method Taylor and Schartz Method
Continued..

Of these, Snyders Method is the most commonly used method, which is briefly described here. Snyders method

Following are the steps involved in unit hydrograph construction according to Snyders method.

Continued..

Step (i) To find Time to Peak, Snyder proposed, tp = C1 Ct (L Lc)0.3 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -(5) Where, tp = Basin Lag in Hours. Basin Lag is the time between centre of mass of unit rain and peak flow (See Figure 15). L = Distance from gauging station to catchment boundary. Lc = Distance in kilometers between gauging station and centroid of catchment. It is measured from gauging station along the main stream to the point nearest to centroid of catchment. Ct = A coefficient determined from the gauged catchment in same or similar region. Its value ranges from 1.35 to 1.65. C1 is a constant whose value in MKS system of units is 0.75.
Continued..

Snyder's Standard Unit Hydrograph

tr 45 40 35 tp

Discharge, Q

30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0 10 20 30 Tim e, t 40 50 60

Figure 15: Definition of tr and tp in Snyders Method

Continued..

Step (ii)
The peak discharge is given by: qp = C2 Cp - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (6) tp Where, C2 is a constant having value of 2.75 Cp = A coefficient determined from the gauged catchment in same or similar region. Its value ranges from 0.56 to 0.69. (See Figure 16)

Continued..

Synthetic Unit Hydrograph by Snyder's Method

45 40 35

W75

Discharge, Q

30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0 10 20 30 Tim e, t 40 50 60

W50

0.75qp 0.5qp

qp

Figure 16: Definition of qp, W50 and W75

Continued..

The coefficients Ct and Cp are determined as explained below: Determination of Ct and Cp L is measured from map Lc is measured from map tR - Effective duration measured from unit hydrograph derived for similar catchment. tPR - Basin lag measured from unit hydrograph derived for similar catchment. qPR - Peak Discharge from unit hydrograph derived for similar catchment.
Continued..

If,

tPR = 5 tR then tR = tr Else, tPR = tp and qPR = qP By back substitution, Ct and Cp can be determined from Equations (5) and (6). If, tPR 5.5 tR , then the standard basin lag is tP = tPR + tr-tR - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (7) 4 Also, tp = 5.5 tr - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (8)

Equations (7) and (8) are solved simultaneously for tr and tP. Ct and Cp are then found from Equations (5) and (6) with conditions qPR = qP and tPR = tp. (Figure 17)

Continued..

Required Synthetic Unit Hydrograph

tR 45 40 tPR

Discharge per unit area

35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0 10 20 30 Tim e, t tb 40 50 60 qPR

Figure 17: Definition of tR, tPR and tb Continued..

Step (iii)

The Peak Discharge of required hydrograph is found using equation 9. qPR = qP tp - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (9) tPR
The base time of required hydrograph is determined by equation 10. Base Time tb = C3 - - - - - - - - - - - - (10) qPR Where C3 is a constant having value of 5.56.

Step (iv)

Continued..

Step (v)

Width of Hydrograph W is given by equation 11. The coefficient Cw defines value of peak discharge where width of hydrograph is required. For example, width at discharge which is 75% and 50% of Peak discharge is to be calculated:
W = Cw qPR-1.08 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (11) For qPR = 75%, Cw = 1.22 For qPR = 50%, Cw = 2.14

Continued..

Example 10

Develop 3-hour and 6-hour unit hydrographs for a catchment area measuring 135.8 Sq. miles with following data:
Ct = 1.50, Cp = 0.60 L = 29.5 miles Lc = 15 miles

Also calculate total run-off in inches for the catchment in each case.

Continued..

Solution Step-1 Basin Lag,

tp = C1 x Ct x (L x Lc)0.30 = 1 x 1.50 x (29.5 x 15)0.30 = 9.33 hours Standard duration of rainfall, tr = tp /5.50 = 9.33/5.50 = 1.70 hours

Continued..

Step-2

3-hour duration unit hydrograph

tR = 3 hours > tr Basin Lag, tPR = tP + [tR tr]/4 = 9.33 + [3-1.70]/4 = 9.66 hours Peak discharge, qPR= 640 x Cp x A /tPR = 640 x 0.60 x 135.8/9.66 = 5398.36 cfs

Continued..

Time base, TR = 3 x (1 + tPR /24) = 3 x (1 + 9.66/24) = 4.21 days = 101 hours 50% of qPR = 2694.5 cusecs W50 = 770 / [qPR / A ]1.08 = 770 / [5398.36 / 135.8 ]1.08 = 14.40 hours 75% of qPR = 4048.70 cusecs W75 = 440 / [qPR / A ]1.08 = 440 / [5398.36 / 135.8 ]1.08 = 8.24 hours

Continued..

Plot unit hydrograph using above calculated values. The graph is shown in Fig 18 below. It has been plotted using definitions given in Figs. 16 and 17 above. From Fig. 18, tabulate the values of discharge against equal time interval of any length say at 6 hours interval (17*6 = 102 close to 101). These values have been shown in Table 16

Continued..

SYNTHETIC 3-HOUR UNIT HYDROGRAPH BY SNYDER'S METHOD (EXAMPLE 6.10)

6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 0 20 40 60

TIME (HOURS)

DISCHARGE (cfs)

80

100

120

Figure 18 Continued..

Time (Hours) 0 6 12

Q (cfs) 0 2550.00 5200.00 3100.00 1300.00 950.00 530.00 300.00 200.00 150.00 110.00 100.00 80.00 60.00 30.00 20.00 10.00 0 14690

Table 16

18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72 78 84 90 96 101 (say 102) Total

Total run-off

[14690 x 6 x 60 x 60] [24 x 60 x 60]

= 3672.50 sfd = 3672.50 / 26.90 = 136.52 inches-mile

Run-off

= 136.52 / 135.8 = 1.00 inch

Continued..

Step 3: 6-hour duration unit hydrograph

tR = 6 hours > tr Basin Lag, tPR = tP + [tR tr]/4 = 9.33 + [6-1.70]/4 = 10.41 hours Peak discharge, qPR = 640 x Cp x A /tPR = 640 x 0.60 x 135.8/10.41 = 5009.34 cfs

Continued..

Time base, TR = 3 x (1 + tPR /24) = 3 x (1 + 10.41/24) = 4.30 days = 103 hours 50% of qPR = 2504.67 cusecs W50 = 770 / [qPR / A ]1.08 = 770 / [5009.34 / 135.8 ]1.08 = 15.64 hours 75% of qPR = 3757.00 cusecs W75 = 440 / [qPR / A ]1.08 = 440 / [5009.34 / 135.8 ]1.08 = 8.94 hours

Continued..

Plot unit hydrograph using above calculated values. The graph is shown in Fig 19 below. It has been plotted using definitions given in Figs. 16 and 17 above. From Fig. 19, tabulate the values of discharge against equal time interval of any length say at 6 hours interval (17*6 = 102 close to 101). These values have been shown in Table 17

Continued..

SYNTHETIC 6-HOUR UNIT HYDROGRAPH BY SNYDER'S METHOD (EXAMPLE 6.1)

6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 0 20 40 60

TIME (HOURS)

DISCHARGE (cfs)

80

100

120

Figure: 19 Continued..

Time (Hours)

Q (cfs)

Time (Hours)

Q (cfs)

0
6 12 18 24 30

0
1880.00 4450.00 3800.00 1500.00 1050.00

60
66 72 78 84 90

150.00
110.00 90.00 80.00 50.00 30.00

36
42 48 54

600.00
350.00 250.00 200.00

96
101 (say 102)

20.00
0

Total

14610

Table 17 Continued..

Total run-off

= = = = = =

Run-off

[14610 x 6 x 60 x 60] [24 x 60 x 60] 3652.50 sfd 3652.50 / 26.90 135.78 inches-mile 135.78 / 135.8 1.00 inch

Continued..

Questions

Define Hydrograph and explain its significance in Hydrology. Discuss shape of hydrograph with respect to catchment characteristics. Explain various methods for separating base flow from direct runoff in hydrograph. Can a unit hydrograph used directly to forecast DRO and peak of a flood, if the intensity of rainfall is not constant? Define Unit Hydrograph and compare it with DRO Hydrograph. Criticize the assumptions involved in unit hydrograph theory.

Continued..

What is the practical significance of a unit hydrograph? What are the three propositions of the unit hydrograph theory? Explain the step by step procedure for deriving unit hydrograph from DRO hydrograph and vice versa? What is S Curve? Explain its utility in hydrology. How ordinates of unit hydrograph are related to rainfall intensity? Why we need separation of composite hydrographs? What is synthetic hydrograph? Explain the method employed for deriving synthetic hydrograph. Comment on the merits and demerits of these methods.

Exercise

Problem 1

Table P1 shows the ordinates at 24 hour intervals for a hydrograph. Separate the base flow from the direct runoff. Compute the volume of DRO.
Time (days) 1 2 3 Flow (m/s) 2 28 20 11 7 5 3 Time (days) 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Flow (m/s) 3 2 2 2 1 1 1

Table P1 Hydrograph Data

4 5 6 7

Exercise

Problem 2

The hydrograph tabulated below in Table P2 resulted from a 6-hour period of rainfall. Considering the base flow as 11 m/s, find the 6-hour unit hydrograph for the basin having 148 sq. km drainage area.
Time (hours) 0 3 6 Flow (m/s) 11 33 91 Time (hours) 21 24 27 Flow (m/s) 100 67 38

9
12

103
125 135 120

30
33 36

20
14 11

Table P2: Unit Hydrograph Data

15 18

Exercise

Problem 3

Given below in Table P3 is the data for the unit hydrograph resulting from a 4-hours duration rainfall, for a certain basin. Derive the S-curve ordinates. Hence derive the ordinates for unit hydrographs of 2-hours and 6-hours durations
Time (hours) 0 Flow (m/s) 0 117 197 145 Time (hours) 8 10 12 14 Flow (m/s) 109 64 21 0

Table P3: Unit Hydrograph Data

2 4 6

Continued..

Exercise

Problem 4

Table P4 shows the data for the hydrograph resulting from a 3hours duration rainfall for a catchment having area of 3,200 km. Derive the unit hydrograph.
Time Day 1 Flow (m/s) Day 2 Flow (m/s)

3 AM 9 AM
12 Noon

17 170
269 198 173 150

130 99
88 68 59 54

Table P4: Hydrograph Data

6 PM 9 PM 12 PM

Exercise

Problem 5

Three consecutive storms of 5 cm 7.5 cm and 4 cm of 6 hours durations each on a basin produced the stream flows as given in Table P5. The basin area is 54 square kilometers. Assuming a constant base flow of 7 m/s and average storm loss of 0.4 cm/hour, derive a 6 hour unit hydrograph.
Time 0 3 Flow (m/s) 8 12 15 39 46 Time 21 24 27 30 36 Flow (m/s) 42 30 21 14 9

Table P5: Discharge Data

6 12 15

18

49

39

Exercise

Problem 6

The hydrograph of Table P6 resulted from three successive 6-hour period rainfall, having runoff estimated as 1.5, 3.0 and 2.3 cm, respectively. The area of the basin is 148.5 km. Assuming a constant base flow of 10 m/s, derive the ordinates of a 6-hour unit hydrograph for the basin.
Time (Hours) 0 3 Flow (m/s) 10 31 Time (Hours) 21 24 Flow (m/s) 99 65

89
90 198 132 193

27
30 33 36

36
19 13 10

Table P6: Discharge Data

9 12 15 18

Exercise

Problem 7

The stream flows due to three successive storms of 3.7, 6 and 2.7 cm of 6-hours duration each on a basin are given in Table P7. The area of the basin is 51 km. Assuming a constant base flow of 8.5 m/s and F index of 0.25 cm/hour, derive a 6 hour unit hydrograph.
Time (Hours) 0 3 Stream Flow (m/s) 8 12 15 27 39 46 49 Time (Hours) 21 24 27 30 33 36 39 Stream Flow (m/s) 42 31 21 14 10 9 8

Table P7: Discharge Data

6 9 12 15 18

Exercise

Problem 8 Two catchments A and B are considered meteorology similar. Their catchment characteristics are given below in Table P8. For catchment A, a 2-h unit hydrograph was developed and was found to have a peak discharge of 50 m/s. The time to peak from the beginning of the rainfall excess in this unit hydrograph was 9.0 h. Using Snyders method, develop a unit hydrograph for catchment B.
Catchment A
L = 39 km Lca = 15 km A = 250 km

Catchment B
L = 45 km Lca = 25 km A = 400 km

Table P8: Catchment Characteristics of Catchments A and B

Exercise

Problem 9

A basin has 400 sq. km. of area, L=35 km and Lca = 10 km. Assuming Ct = 1.5 and Cp = 0.70, develop a 3-hour synthetic unit hydrograph for this basin using Snyders method.

Exercise

Problem 10

Table P10 shows the ordinates of the 9-hour unit hydrograph for the entire catchment of a river up to a dam site
Time (Hours) 0 9 18 27 Discharge (m/s) 0 69 1000 210 Time (Hours) 36 45 54 Discharge (m/s) 118 74 46

Table P10: Discharge Data

Exercise

The catchment characteristics are:

A = 4480 km, L = 318 km,

Lca = 198 km

Derive a 3 hour unit hydrograph of another catchment which is meteorologically and hydrologically similar and has the following characteristics.

A = 3780 km, km

L = 284 km,

Lca=198

Use Snyders approach with necessary modifications for the shape of the hydrograph

Exercise

Problem 11

Using Snyders method, derive the 6-hour unit hydrograph by using the following data. Ct = 2.65, Cp = 0.56, A = 3500 km L = 150 km, Lca = 75 km