Hypothalamus

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Hypothalamus

Hypothalamus
• The hypothalamus, although small (0.3% of the total brain), is
a very important part of the central nervous system.
• It is essential for life. It controls the autonomic nervous
system and the endocrine system and thus indirectly controls
body homeostasis.
• The hypothalamus is well placed for this purpose, lying in the
center of the limbic system. It is the site of numerous
converging and diverging neuronal pathways, and through its
adequate blood supply, it is able to sample the blood
chemistry.
• The hypothalamus makes appropriate controlling responses
following the integration of its nervous and chemical inputs.
The Hypothalamus
• The hypothalamus is the part of the diencephalon that extends
from the region of the optic chiasma to the caudal border of the
mammillary bodies.
• It lies below the thalamus and forms the floor and the inferior
part of the lateral walls of the third ventricle .
• Anterior to the hypothalamus is an area that, for functional
reasons, is often included in the hypothalamus. Because it extends
forward from the optic chiasma to the lamina terminalis and the
anterior commissure, it is referred to as the preoptic area.
• Caudally, the hypothalamus merges into the tegmentum of the
midbrain.
• The lateral boundary of the hypothalamus is formed by the
internal capsule.
• When observed from below, the
hypothalamus is seen to be related to the
following structures, from anterior to
posterior:
• (1) the optic chiasma,
• (2) the tuber cinereum and the infundibulum,
and
• (3) the mammillary bodies
Hypothalamic Nuclei
• Microscopically, the hypothalamus is
composed of small nerve cells that are
arranged in groups or nuclei, many of which
are not clearly segregated from one another.
• For purposes of description, the nuclei are
divided by an imaginary parasagittal plane into
medial and lateral zones
Medial Zone
• In the medial zone, the following hypothalamic nuclei
can be recognized, from anterior to posterior:
1. Preoptic nucleus
2. Anterior nucleus
3. Suprachiasmatic nucleus
4. Paraventricular nucleus
5. Dorsomedial nucleus
6. Ventromedial nucleus
7. Infundibular (arcuate) nucleus
8. Posterior nucleus.
Lateral Zone
• In the lateral zone, the following hypothalamic
nuclei can be recognized, from anterior to
posterior:
1. Preoptic nucleus
2. Suprachiasmatic nucleus
3. Supraoptic nucleus
4. Lateral nucleus
5. Tuberomammillary nucleus
6. Lateral tuberal nuclei.
Hypothalamic Lines of Communication
• The hypothalamus receives information from the
rest of the body through (1) nervous connections,
(2) the bloodstream, and (3) cerebrospinal fluid.
• The neurons of the hypothalamic nuclei respond
and exert their control via the same routes.
• The cerebrospinal fluid may serve as a conduit
between the neurosecretory cells of the
hypothalamus and distant sites of the brain.
Afferent Nervous Connections of the
Hypothalamus
• The hypothalamus, which lies in the center of
the limbic system, receives many afferent
fibers from the viscera, the olfactory mucous
membrane, the cerebral cortex, and the limbic
system.
• The afferent connections are numerous and
complex; the main pathways are as follows:
The Main Afferent Nervous Connections of
the Hypothalamus

Pathway Origin Destination


Medial and spinal Viscera and Hypothalamic nuclei
lemnisci, tractus somatic structures
solitarius, reticular
formation

Visual fibers Retina Suprachiasmatic


nucleus
Medial forebrain Olfactory mucous Hypothalamic nuclei
bundle membrane
Auditory fibers Inner ear Hypothalamic nuclei
Pathway Origin Destination

Corticohypothalamic Frontal lobe of Hypothalamic nuclei


fibers cerebral cortex

Hippocampohypothalami Hippocampus Nuclei of


c mammillary body
fibers; possibly main
output pathway of limbic
system
Amygdalohypothalamic Amygdaloid Hypothalamic nuclei
fibers complex

Thalamohypothalamic Dorsomedial and Hypothalamic nuclei


fibers midline nuclei of
thalamus
Tegmental fibers Tegmentum of Hypothalamic nuclei
midbrain
The Main Efferent Nervous Connections of
the Hypothalamus
Pathway Origin Destination
Descending fibers in Preoptic, anterior, Craniosacral
reticular formation to posterior, and parasympathetic and
brainstem and spinal lateral nuclei of Thoracolumbar
cord hypothalamus Sympathetic outflows

Mammillothalamic tract Nuclei of Anterior nucleus of


mammillary body thalamus; relayed to
cingulate gyrus

Mammillotegmental Nuclei of Reticular formation


tract mammillary body in tegmentum of
midbrain

Multiple pathways Hypothalamic Limbic system


nuclei
Connections of the Hypothalamus With the Hypophysis
Cerebri

• The hypothalamus is connected to the hypophysis


cerebri (pituitary gland) by two pathways:
• (1) nerve fibers that travel from the supraoptic and
paraventricular nuclei to the posterior lobe of the
hypophysis and
• (2) long and short portal blood vessels that connect
sinusoids in the median eminence and infundibulum
with capillary plexuses in the anterior lobe of the
hypophysis.
• These pathways enable the hypothalamus to influence
the activities of the endocrine glands.
Hypothalamohypophyseal Tract
• The hormones vasopressin and oxytocin are
synthesized in the nerve cells of the
supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei. The
hormones are passed along the axons together
with carrier proteins called neurophysins and
are released at the axon terminals .
• Here, the hormones are absorbed into the
bloodstream in fenestrated capillaries of the
posterior lobe of the hypophysis.
Hypophyseal Portal System
• Neurosecretory cells situated mainly in the medial
zone of the hypothalamus are responsible for the
production of the releasing hormones and release-
inhibitory hormones.
• The hormones are packaged into granules and are
transported along the axons of these cells into the
median eminence and infundibulum.
• Here, the granules are released by exocytosis onto
fenestrated capillaries at the upper end of the
hypophyseal portal system
• The hypophyseal portal system is formed on each
side from the superior hypophyseal artery, which is
a branch of the internal carotid artery.
• The artery enters the median eminence and divides
into tufts of capillaries.
• These capillaries drain into long and short
descending vessels that end in the anterior lobe of
the hypophysis by dividing into vascular sinusoids
that pass between the secretory cells of the
anterior lobe.
Functions of Hypothalamus
• Autonomic Control
• The hypothalamus has a controlling influence
on the autonomic nervous system and
appears to integrate the autonomic and
neuroendocrine systems, thus preserving
body homeostasis.
• Electrical stimulation of the hypothalamus in
animal experiments shows that the anterior
hypothalamic area and the preoptic area
influence parasympathetic responses; these
include lowering of the blood pressure, slowing
of the heart rate, contraction of the bladder,
increased motility of the gastrointestinal tract,
increased acidity of the gastric juice, salivation,
and pupillary constriction
• Stimulation of the posterior and lateral nuclei
causes sympathetic responses, which include
elevation of blood pressure, acceleration of
the heart rate, cessation of peristalsis in the
gastrointestinal tract, pupillary dilation, and
hyperglycemia.
Endocrine Control
• The nerve cells of the hypothalamic nuclei, by
producing the releasing factors or release-inhibiting
factors control the hormone production of the
anterior lobe of the hypophysis (pituitary gland).
• The anterior lobe hormones include GH, prolactine,
ACTH, TSH, FSH.
• Some of these hormones act directly on body tissues,
while others, such as ACTH, act through an endocrine
organ, which in turn produces additional hormones
that influence the activities of general body tissues
Neurosecretion

• The secretion of vasopressin and oxytocin by


the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei…….
Temperature Regulation
• The anterior portion of the hypothalamus controls those
mechanisms that dissipate heat loss. Experimental stimulation of
this area causes dilatation of skin blood vessels and sweating,
which lower the body temperature.
• Stimulation of the posterior portion of the hypothalamus results
in vasoconstriction of the skin blood vessels and inhibition of
sweating; there also may be shivering, in which the skeletal
muscles produce heat.
• Normally, the hypothalamus sets the body temperature at 98.0°F
to 98.6°F when measured orally and 1° higher when measured
rectally. The temperature set can be altered in response to
extremes, such as in environmental temperatures or in infection.
Regulation of Food and Water Intake
• Stimulation of the lateral region of the hypothalamus
initiates the feeling of hunger and results in an increase
in food intake. This lateral region sometimes is referred
to as the hunger center. Bilateral destruction of this
center results in anorexia, with the consequent loss in
body weight.
• Stimulation of the medial region of the hypothalamus
inhibits eating and reduces food intake. This area is
referred to as the satiety center. Bilateral destruction of
the satiety center produces an uncontrolled voracious
appetite, causing extreme obesity.
• Experimental stimulation of other areas in the lateral
region of the hypothalamus causes an immediate
increase in the desire to drink water; this area is
referred to as the thirst center.
• In addition, the supraoptic nucleus of the
hypothalamus exerts a careful control on the osmolarity
of the blood through the secretion of vasopressin
(antidiuretic hormone) by the posterior lobe of the
hypophysis. This hormone causes a great increase in the
reabsorption of water in the distal convoluted tubules
and collecting tubules of the kidneys.
Emotion and Behavior
• Emotion and behavior are a function of the
hypothalamus, the limbic system, and the prefrontal
cortex.
• Some authorities believe that the hypothalamus is the
integrator of afferent information received from other
areas of the nervous system and brings about the
physical expression of emotion; it can produce an
increase in the heart rate, elevate the blood pressure,
cause dryness of the mouth, flushing or pallor of the
skin, and sweating. As well, it can often produce a
massive peristaltic activity of the gastrointestinal tract.
Control of Circadian Rhythms
• The hypothalamus controls many circadian
rhythms, including body temperature,
adrenocortical activity, eosinophil count, and renal
secretion.
• Sleeping and wakefulness, although dependent on
the activities of the thalamus, the limbic system,
and the reticular activating system, are also
controlled by the hypothalamus. Lesions of the
anterior part of the hypothalamus seriously
interfere with the rhythm of sleeping and waking.
Functions of the Main Hypothalamic Nuclei

Hypothalamic Nucleus Presumed Function

Supraoptic nucleus Synthesizes vasopressin (antidiuretic


hormone)
Paraventricular nucleus Synthesizes oxytocin

Preoptic and anterior Control parasympathetic system


nuclei

Posterior and lateral Control sympathetic system


nuclei

Anterior hypothalamic nuclei Regulate temperature (response to


heat)
Hypothalamic Nucleus Presumed Function

Posterior hypothalamic Regulate temperature (response to


nuclei cold)

Lateral hypothalamic Initiate eating and increase food


nuclei intake
(hunger center)

Medial hypothalamic Inhibit eating and reduce food intake


nuclei (satiety
center)

Lateral hypothalamic Increase water intake (thirst center)


nuclei

Suprachiasmatic nucleus Controls circadian rhythms

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