Cap6 - Data Reduction

Data Reduction
Data Reduction
1. Overview
2. The Curse of Dimensionality
3. Data Sampling
4. Binning and Reduction of Cardinality
Data Reduction
1. Overview
3. Data Sampling
Overview
• Data reduction techniques can be applied to
achieve a reduced representation of the data
set.
• The goal is to provide the mining process with
a mechanism to produce the same (or almost
the same) outcome when it is applied over
reduced data instead of the original data.
Overview
• Data Reduction techniques are usually
categorized into three main families:
– Dimensionality Reduction: ensures the reduction of the

number of attributes or random variables in the data set.
– Sample Numerosity Reduction: replaces the original data
by an alternative smaller data representation
– Cardinality Reduction: transformations applied to obtain a
reduced representation of the original data
Data Reduction
1. Overview
3. Data Sampling
The Curse of Dimensionality
• Dimensionality becomes a serious obstacle for
the efficiency of most of the DM algorithms.
• It has been estimated that as the number of

dimensions increase, the sample size needs to
increase exponentially in order to have an
effective estimate of multivariate densities.
• Several dimension reducers have been
developed over the years.
• Linear methods:
– Factor analysis
– MultiDimensional Scaling
– Principal Components Analysis
• Nonlinear methods:
– Locally Linear Embedding
– ISOMAP
• Feature Selection methods are aimed at
eliminating irrelevant and redundant features,
reducing the number of variables in the
model.
• To find an optimal subset B that solves the
following optimization problem:
J(B)  criterion function
A  Original set of Features
Z  Subset of Features
d  minimum nº features
The Curse of Dimensionality: Principal
Components Analysis
• Find a set of linear transformations of the original
variables which could describe most of the variance
using a relatively fewer number of variables.
• It is usual to keep only the first few principal
components that may contain 95% or more of the
variance of the original data set.
• PCA is useful when there are too many independent
variables and they show high correlation.
Components Analysis
• Procedure:
– Normalize input data.
– Compute k orthonormal vectors (principal
components).
– Sort the PCs according to their strength, given by
their eigenvalues.
– Reduce data by removing weaker components.
Components Analysis
The Curse of Dimensionality:
Factor Analysis
• Similar to PCA in the deduction of a semaller
set of variables.
• Different because it does not seek to find

transformations for the given attributes.
Instead, its goal is to discover hidden factors
in the current variables.
Factor Analysis
The factor analysis problem can be stated as
given the attributes A, along with the mean μ,
we endeavor to find the set of factors F and the
associated loadings L, and therefore the next
equation is accurate.
Factor Analysis
MultiDimensional Scaling
• Method for situating a set of points in a low space
such that a classical distance measure (like
Euclidean) between them is as close as possible to
each pair of points.
• We can compute the distances in a dimensional

space of the original data and then to use as input
this distance matrix, which then projects it in to a
lower-dimensional space so as to preserve these
distances.
Locally Linear Embedding
• LLE recovers global nonlinear structure from
locally linear fits.
• Its main idea is that each local patch of the

manifold can be approximated linearly and
given enough data, each point can be written
as a linear, weighted sum of its neighbors.
Data Reduction
1. Overview
3. Data Sampling
Data Sampling
• To reduce the number of instances submitted to the
DM algorithm.
• To support the selection of only those cases in which
the response is relatively homogeneous.
• To assist regarding the balance of data and
occurrence of rare events.
• To divide a data set into three data sets to carry out
the subsequent analysis of DM algorithms.
Data Sampling
Forms of data sampling (T  data set, N  nº
examples):
•Simple random sample without replacement (SRSWOR) of size
s: This is created by drawing s of the N tuples from T (s < N),
where the probability of drawing any tuple in T is 1/N.
•Simple random sample with replacement (SRSWR) of size s:

Similar to SRSWOR, except that each time a tuple is drawn from
T , it is recorded and replaced.
Data Sampling
Forms of data sampling (T  data set, N  nº
examples):
•Balanced sample: The sample is designed according to a target
variable and is forced to have a certain composition according to
a predefined criterion.
•Cluster sample: If the tuples in T are grouped into G mutually
disjointed clusters, then an SRS of s clusters can be obtained,
where s < G.
•Stratified sample: If T is divided into mutually disjointed parts
called strata, a stratified sample of T is generated by obtaining
an SRS at each stratum
Data Sampling:
Data Condensation
• It emerges from the fact that naive sampling
methods, such as random sampling or stratified
sampling, are not suitable for real-world problems
with noisy data since the performance of the
algorithms may change unpredictably and
significantly.
• They attempt to obtain a minimal set which correctly

classifies all the original examples.
Data Sampling:
Data Squashing
• A data squashing method seeks to compress,
or “squash”, the data in such a way that a
statistical analysis carried out on the
compressed data obtains the same outcome
that the one obtained with the original data
set.
• Schemes:
– Original Data Squashing (DS).
– Likelihood-based Data Squashing (LDS).
Data Sampling:
Data Clustering
• Clustering algorithms partition the data
examples into groups, or clusters, so that data
samples within a cluster are “similar” to one
another and different to data examples that
belong to other clusters.
• Clusters the data could be used instead of the

actual data.
Data Sampling:
Data Clustering
Data Reduction
1. Overview
3. Data Sampling
Binning and Reduction of
Cardinality
• Binning is the process of converting a
continuous variable into a set of ranges.
(0–5,000; 5,001–10,000; 10,001–15,000, . . . , etc.)
• Cardinality reduction of nominal and ordinal
variables is the process of combining two or
more categories into one new category.
• Binning is the easiest and direct way of
discretization.

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Data Reduction

– Dimensionality Reduction: ensures the reduction of the

• It has been estimated that as the number of

• Different because it does not seek to find

• We can compute the distances in a dimensional

• Its main idea is that each local patch of the

•Simple random sample with replacement (SRSWR) of size s:

• They attempt to obtain a minimal set which correctly

• Clusters the data could be used instead of the

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