MYCOLOGY

STRUCTURE & GROWTH

Because fungi (yeasts and molds) are
eukaryotic organisms, whereas bacteria are
prokaryotic, Two fungal cell structures are
important medically:
 Cell wall
 Cell membrane
 Cell wall
(1) The fungal cell wall consists primarily of chitin (not
peptidoglycan as in bacteria); thus fungi are insensitive to
antibiotics, such as penicillin, that inhibit peptidoglycan
synthesis.
Chitin is a polysaccharide composed of long chains of N-
acetylglucosamine. The fungal cell wall contains other
polysaccharides as well, the most important of which is β-
glucan, a long polymer of D-glucose. The medical importance
of β-glucan is that it is the site of action of the antifungal drug
caspofungin.
 Cell membrane
(2) The fungal cell membrane contains
ergosterol, in contrast to the human cell
membrane, which contains cholesterol. The
selective action of amphotericin B and azole
drugs, such as fluconazole and ketoconazole,
on fungi is based on this difference in
membrane sterols.
 Types of fungi
YEASTS AND MOLDS.
Yeasts grow as single cells that reproduce by
asexual budding. Molds grow as long filaments
(hyphae) and form a mat (mycelium). Some
hyphae form transverse walls (septate hyphae),
whereas others do not (nonseptate hyphae).
Nonseptate hyphae are multinucleated
(coenocytic). The growth of hyphae occurs by
extension of the tip of the hypha, not by cell
division all along the filament.
Several medically important fungi are
thermally dimorphic (i.e., they form different
structures at different temperatures). They
exist as molds in the environment at ambient
temperature and as yeasts (or other structures)
in human tissues at body temperature.
Most fungi are obligate aerobes; some are
facultative anaerobes; but none are obligate
anaerobes. All fungi require a preformed
organic source of carbon—hence their
frequent association with decaying matter. The
natural habitat of most fungi is, therefore, the
environment. An important exception is
Candida albicans, which is part of the normal
human flora.
 REPRODUCTION
Some fungi reproduce sexually by mating and
forming sexual spores (e.g., zygospores,
ascospores, and basidiospores). Zygospores are
single large spores with thick walls; ascospores
are formed in a sac called ascus; and basidiospores
are formed externally on the tip of a pedestal called
a basidium. The classification of these fungi is
based on their sexual spores. Fungi that do not
form sexual spores are termed “imperfect” and are
classified as fungi imperfecti.
 Asexual Reproduction
Most fungi of medical interest propagate
asexually by forming conidia (asexual spores)
from the sides or ends of specialized
structures. The shape, color, and arrangement
of conidia aid in the identification of fungi.
(1) Arthrospores, which arise by fragmentation
of the ends of hyphae and are the mode of
transmission of Coccidioides immitis;
(2) chlamydospores,
which are rounded, thick-walled, and quite
resistant (the terminal chlamydospores C.
albicans aid in its identification);
(3) blastospores, which are formed by the budding
process by which yeasts reproduce asexually
(some yeasts, e.g., C. albicans, can form multiple
buds that do not detach, thus producing
sausagelike chains called pseudohyphae, which
can be used for identification)
(4) sporangiospores, which are formed within a
sac (sporangium) on a stalk by molds such as
Rhizopus and Mucor.
 Reproduce by spores
• Spores are reproductive cells
– Sexual (meiotic in origin)
– Asexual (mitotic in origin)
• Formed:
– Directly on hyphae
– Inside sporangia
– Fruiting bodies

Penicillium hyphae
with conidia
Pilobolus sporangia
Amanita fruiting body
 Hyphal growth from spore

germinating
spore

mycelium

• Mycelia have a huge surface area

 The Characteristics of Fungi
• Fungus is often hidden from view. It grows
through its food source (substratum), excretes
extracellular digestive enzymes, and absorbs
dissolved food.
• Indeterminate clonal growth.
• Vegetative phase of fungus is generally
sedentary.
 The Characteristics of Fungi

• Cell wall present, composed of cellulose and/or chitin.

• Food storage - generally in the form of lipids and glycogen.
• Eukaryotes - true nucleus and other organelles present.
• All fungi require water and oxygen (no obligate anaerobes).
• Fungi grow in almost every habitat imaginable, as long as there
is some type of organic matter present and the environment is
not too extreme.
• Diverse group, number of described species is somewhere
between 69,000 to 100,000 (estimated 1.5 million species
total).
 Chytridiomycota – “chytrids”
• Simple fungi
• Produce motile spores -
zoospores
• Mostly saprobes and
parasites in aquatic
habitats
• Could just as well be Chytridium growing on spores
Protists

Chytriomyces growing on pine pollen

 Zygomycota – “zygote fungi”
Rhizopus on strawberries

• Sexual Reproduction -
zygosporangia
• Asexual reprod. – common
(sporangia – bags of asexual
spores)
• Hyphae have no cross walls
• Grow rapidly
• Decomposers, pathogens, and
some form mycorrhizal
associations with plants

Rhinocerebral zygomycosis
 Ascomycota – “sac fungi”

• Sexual Reproduction – asci

(sing. = ascus)
• Asex. Reprod. – common
• Cup fungi, morels, truffles
• Important plant parasites &
saprobes
• Yeast - Saccharomyces
• Decomposers, pathogens,
and found in most lichens
A cluster of asci with spores inside
 Basidiomycota – “club fungi”
• Sexual Reproduction – basidia
• Asexual reprod – not so
common
• Long-lived dikaryotic mycelia
• Rusts & smuts –plant parasites
• Mushrooms, polypores,
puffballs, boletes, bird’s nest
fungi
• Enzymes decompose wood,
leaves, and other organic
materials
• Decomposers, pathogens, and
some form mycorrhizal
associations with plants SEM of basidia and spores
 Some fungi have more than one scientific
name – Why?
• Teleomorph: the sexual reproductive stage (morph),
typically a fruiting body (e.g., Morchella esculenta,
Agaricus brunescens).
• Anamorph: an asexual reproductive stage (morph),
often mold-like (e.g. Aspergillus flavus, Fusarium
solani). When a single fungus produces multiple
morphologically distinct anamorphs, they are called
synanamorphs.
• Holomorph: the whole fungus, including all
anamorphs and the teleomorph.
Deuteromycota – Form Phylum “Imperfect
Fungi”

• Fungi that seldom or never reproduce

sexually.
• Asexual reproduction by vegetative growth
and production of asexual spores common.
 PATHOGENESIS
The response to infection with many fungi is the
formation of granulomas. Granulomas are produced in
the major systemic fungal diseases (e.g.,
coccidioidomycosis, histoplasmosis, and blastomycosis,
as well as several others). The cell-mediated immune
response is involved in granuloma formation. Acute
suppuration, characterized by the presence of
neutrophils in the exudate, also occurs in certain fungal
diseases such as aspergillosis and sporotrichosis. Fungi
do not have endotoxin in their cell walls and do not
produce bacterial-type exotoxins.
Activation of the cell-mediated immune system results
in a delayed hypersensitivity skin test response to
certain fungal antigens injected intradermally. A
positive skin test indicates exposure to the fungal
antigen. It does not imply current infection, because the
exposure may have occurred in the past. A negative skin
test makes the diagnosis unlikely unless the patient is
immunocompromised. Because most people carry
Candida as part of the normal flora, skin testing with
Candida antigens can be used to determine whether
cell-mediated immunity is normal.
Intact skin is an effective host defense against
certain fungi (e.g., Candida, dermatophytes), but if
the skin is damaged, organisms can become
established. Fatty acids in the skin inhibit
dermatophyte growth, and hormone-associated skin
changes at puberty limit ringworm of the scalp
caused by Trichophyton. The normal flora of the
skin and mucous membranes suppress fungi. When
the normal flora is inhibited (e.g., by antibiotics),
overgrowth of fungi such as C. albicans can occur.
In the respiratory tract, the important host defenses
are the mucous membranes of the nasopharynx,
which trap inhaled fungal spores, and alveolar
macrophages. Circulating IgG and IgM are
produced in response to fungal infection, but their
role in protection from disease is uncertain. The
cell-mediated immune response is protective; its
suppression can lead to reactivation and
dissemination of asymptomatic fungal infections
and to disease caused by opportunistic fungi.