CH 16

John R. Schermerhorn, Jr.
16 Daniel G. Bachrach
Introduction to
Management
13th edition
CHAPTER 16
MOTIVATION THEORY
AND PRACTICE
PLANNING AHEAD —KEY TAKEAWAYS
 Explain theories of how individual needs
motivate behavior.
 Identify the influences of expectancy, equity,
goal-setting, and self-efficacy processes on
motivation.
 Discuss the roles reinforcement principles and
strategies play in motivation.
 Explain how job designs and alternative work
schedules influence motivation.
Copyright ©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

CHAPTER 16 OUTLINE
1. Individual Needs and Motivation
a) Hierarchy of needs theory
b) ERG theory
c) Two-factor theory
d) Acquired needs theory
2. Process Theories of Motivation
a) Equity theory
b) Expectancy theory
c) Goal-setting theory
d) Self-efficacy theory

CHAPTER 16 OUTLINE
3. Reinforcement Theory
a) Reinforcement strategies
b) Positive reinforcement
c) Punishment
4. Motivation and Job Design
a) Job simplification
b) Job enrichment
c) Alternative work schedules

INDIVIDUAL NEEDS AND MOTIVATION
Motivation—the forces within the

individual that account for the level,
direction, and persistence of effort
expended at work

Needs
Unfulfilledphysiological and psychological
desires of an individual
Explain workplace behavior and attitudes
Create tensions that influence attitudes and
behavior
Good managers and leaders facilitate
employee need satisfaction

Hierarchy of needs theory
Developed by Abraham Maslow
Lower-order and higher-order needs affect
workplace behavior and attitudes
Lower-order needs:
 Physiological, safety, and social needs
 Desires for physical and social well being
Higher-order needs:
 Esteem and self-actualization needs
 Desire for psychological growth and development

FIGURE 16.1 OPPORTUNITIES FOR
SATISFACTION IN MASLOW’S HIERARCHY
OF HUMAN NEEDS

Hierarchy of needs theory
Deficit principle
 A satisfied need is not a motivator of behavior
Progression principle
 A need at one level does not become activated
until the next lower-level need is satisfied

ERG theory
Developed by Clayton Alderfer
Three need levels
Existence Relatedness Growth
needs needs needs
•desires •desires for •desires for
for satisfying continued
physiologi interperso psychologi
cal growth
cal and nal
and
material relationshi developme
well-being ps nt
ERG theory
Any/all needs can influence behavior at one
time
Frustration-regression principle
 An already satisfied lower-level need becomes
reactivated when a higher-level need is frustrated

Two-factor theory
Developed by Frederick Herzberg
Hygiene factors:
 Elements of the job context
 Sources of job dissatisfaction
Satisfier factors:
 Elements of the job content
 Sources of job satisfaction and motivation

FIGURE 16.2 ELEMENTS IN HERZBERG’S
TWO-FACTOR THEORY

Acquired needs theory
Developed by David McClelland
People acquire needs through their life
experiences Need for
Needs that are acquired: Achievemen
t (nAch)
Need for Need for

Affiliation Power
(nAff) (nPower)

Need for Achievement (nAch)
 Desire to do something better or more efficiently, to
solve problems, or to master complex tasks
People high in (nAch) prefer work that:
 Involves individual responsibility for results
 Involves achievable but challenging goals
 Provides feedback on performance

Need for Power (nPower)
 Desire to control other persons, to influence their
behavior, or to be responsible for other people
 Personal power versus social power
People high in (nPower) prefer work that:

 Involves control over other persons
 Has an impact on people and events
 Brings public recognition and attention

Need for Affiliation (nAff)
 Desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm
relations with other persons
People high in (nAff) prefer work that:
 Involves interpersonal relationships
 Provides for companionship
 Brings social approval

PROCESS THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
 Process theories of motivation …
How people make choices to work hard or not
Choices are based on:
 Individual preferences
 Available rewards
 Possible work outcomes
 Types of process theories:

Equitytheory
Expectancy theory
Goal-setting theory

Equity theory
Developed by J. Stacy Adams
When people believe that they have been
treated unfairly in comparison to others, they
try to eliminate the discomfort and restore a
perceived sense of equity to the situation
 Perceived inequity
 Perceived equity

FIGURE 16.3 EQUITY THEORY AND THE ROLE OF
SOCIAL COMPARISON

Equity and social comparison
People compare their ratio of outcomes-to-
inputs to the outcomes-to-inputs ratio of
another (a referent)

– Over-reward inequity (positive inequity)
occurs when an individual perceives that
rewards received are more than what is
fair for work inputs
– Under-reward inequity (negative inequity)

occurs when an individual perceives that
rewards received are less than what is
fair for work inputs

Equity theory
People respond to perceived negative
inequity by changing:
 Work inputs
 Rewards received
 Referent’s inputs or outcomes
 Comparison points
 Situation

Managerial implications of equity theory—
 Underpaid people experience anger
 Overpaid people experience guilt
 Perceptions of rewards determine motivational
outcomes
 Negative consequences of equity comparisons
should be minimized, if not eliminated
 Do not underestimate the impact of pay as a source
of equity controversies in the workplace
 Gender equity
 Comparable worth

 Expectancy theory
 Developed by Victor Vroom
 Key expectancy theory variables:
 Expectancy — belief that working hard will result in
desired level of performance
 Instrumentality — belief that successful performance will
be followed by rewards
 Valence — value a person assigns to rewards and other
work related outcomes

FIGURE 16.4 ELEMENTS IN THE EXPECTANCY
THEORY OF MOTIVATION

Expectancy theory
– Motivation (M), expectancy (E), instrumentality
(I), and valence (V) are related to one another in
a multiplicative fashion:
Motivation = Expectancy x Instrumentality x

Valence
If either E, I, or V is low, motivation will be low

Managerial implications of expectancy
theory
To maximize expectancy, managers should:
 Select workers with ability
 Train workers to use ability
 Support work efforts
 Clarify performance goals

theory
To maximize instrumentality, managers
should:
 Clarify psychological contracts
 Communicate performance-outcome possibilities
 Identify rewards that are contingent on performance

theory
To maximize valence in a positive direction,
managers should:
 Use content theories
 Increase communication
 Link needs/desires with rewards

Goal-setting theory
Developed by Edwin Locke
Properly set and well-managed task goals
can be highly motivating
Motivational effects of task goals:
 Provide direction to people in their work
 Clarify performance expectations
 Establish a frame of reference for feedback
 Provide a foundation for behavioral self-
management

How to Make Goal Setting Work for You:
• Set specific goals

• Set challenging goals
• Build goal acceptance and commitment
• Clarify goal priorities
• Provide feedback on goal accomplishment
• Reward goal accomplishment

 Goal-setting theory
Participation in goal setting
 unlocks the motivational potential of goal setting
 management by objectives (MBO) promotes
participation
 when participation is not possible, workers will
respond positively if supervisory trust and support

exist

Self-Efficacy Theory
a person’s belief that he or she is capable of
performing a task
Capability directly affects motivation
 higher self-efficacy will have higher expectancy
 self-efficacy is linked to performance goal setting

 Self-Efficacy Theory
Enactive mastery
 person gains confidence through positive experience
Vicarious modeling
 learning by observing others
Verbal persuasion
 encouragement from others that one can perform a task
Emotional arousal
 high stimulation or energy to perform well in a situation

REINFORCEMENT THEORY
Fundamentals of reinforcement theory
Focuses on the impact of external
environmental consequences on behavior
Law of effect — behavior followed by
pleasant consequences is likely to be
repeated: behavior followed by unpleasant
consequences is not

Operant conditioning:
Developed by B.F. Skinner
Applies law of effect to control behavior by
manipulating its consequences

Operant conditioning strategies:
Positive reinforcement
 Increases the frequency of a behavior through the
contingent presentation of a pleasant consequence
Negative reinforcement
 Increases the frequency of a behavior through the
contingent removal of an unpleasant consequence

Operant conditioning strategies:
Punishment
 Decreases the frequency of a behavior through the
contingent presentation of an unpleasant
consequence
Extinction
 Decreases the frequency of a behavior through the
contingent removal of an pleasant consequence

Successful implementation of positive
reinforcement is based on
Law of contingent reinforcement —
 Reward delivered only if desired behavior is
exhibited
Law of immediate reinforcement —
 More immediate the delivery of a reward, the more
reinforcement value it has

Guidelines for using positive reinforcement:
• Clearly identify desired work behaviors

• Maintain a diverse inventory of rewards
• Inform everyone about what must be done to get rewards
• Recognize individual differences when allocating rewards
• Follow the laws of immediate and contingent reinforcement

 Schedules of reinforcement:
 Continuous reinforcement administers a reward each
time a desired behavior occurs
 Intermittent reinforcement rewards behavior only
periodically
 Acquisition of behavior is quicker with continuous
reinforcement
 Behavior acquired under an intermittent schedule is
more permanent
 Shaping is the creation of a new behavior by positive
reinforcement of successive approximations to it

Guidelines for using punishment:

 Tell the person what is being done wrong
 Tell the person what is being done right
 Match the punishment to the behavior
 Administer punishment in private
 Follow laws of immediate and contingent
reinforcement

FIGURE 16.5 APPLYING REINFORCEMENT
STRATEGIES: CASE OF TOTAL QUALITY
MANAGEMENT

MOTIVATION AND JOB DESIGN
Job design
The process of arranging work tasks for
individuals and groups
Jobs should be designed so that both
performance and satisfaction result

Job simplification
Standardizing work procedures and
employing people in well-defined and highly
specialized tasks
Simplified jobs are narrow in job scope and
low in job depth
Automation
 Total mechanization of a job
 Most extreme form of job simplification

Potential Potential
advantages of job disadvantages of
simplification: job simplification:
•Easier and quicker training •Productivity suffers
of workers •Cost increases due to
•Workers are less difficult to
absenteeism/ turnover
supervise
•Workers are easier to of unhappy workers
•Poor performance may
replace
•Development of expertise result from worker
in doing repetitive tasks boredom/ alienation

Job rotation and job enlargement:

Expands job scope
Job rotation
 Increases task variety by periodically shifting
workers among jobs involving different task
assignments
Job enlargement
 Increases task variety by combining two or more
tasks previously assigned to separate workers
 Horizontal loading

Job enrichment
Building more opportunities for satisfaction
into a job by expanding its content
Increases job depth by adding work planning
duties normally performed by a supervisor

Focuses attention on the extent to which five core
job characteristics are present in a job:
 Skill
variety
 Task identity
 Task significance
 Autonomy
 Feedback

FIGURE 16.6 JOB DESIGN ESSENTIALS USING
THE JOB CHARACTERISTICS MODEL

How to improve core job characteristics:
Form natural units of work
Combine tasks
Establish client relationships
Open feedback channels
Practice vertical loading


Alternative Work Schedules: Flexible

working hours
Any work schedule that gives employees
some choice in the pattern of their daily work
hours
 Core time — all employees must be at work
 Flextime — allows employees to schedule around
personal and family responsibilities

Potential benefits of flexible working hours:
People have greater autonomy in work
scheduling while ensuring maintenance of
work responsibilities
Organizations can attract and retain
employees who have special non-work
responsibilities
Worker morale may be improved

Alternative Work Schedules: Compressed
workweek
Allows a full-time job to be completed in less
than the standard 5 days of 8-hour shifts
 Benefits — more leisure time, lower commuting
costs, lower absenteeism, and potentially improved
performance
 Disadvantages — increased fatigue, family
adjustment problems, increased scheduling

problems

Alternative Work Schedules: Job sharing

One full-time job is split between two or more
persons
 Potential advantages of job sharing:
organizations benefit by employing talented
people who are unable/unwilling to commit
full-time

Alternative Work Schedules:
Telecommuting
A work arrangement that allows a portion of
scheduled work hours to be completed
outside of the office
Hoteling
Virtual offices

 Potential advantages of telecommuting:
Freedom from
 Constraints of commuting
 Fixed hours
 Special work attire
 Direct contact with supervisors
Increased productivity
Fewer distractions
Being one’s own boss
Having more personal time

MOTIVATION AND JOB DESIGN?
Potential disadvantages of telecommuting:
 Working too much
 Having less personal time
 Difficulty in separating work and personal life
 Less time for family
 Feelings of isolation
 Loss of visibility for promotion
 Difficulties supervising work-at-home
employees
from a distance
 Contingency workers
Part-timeworkers who supplement the full-
time workforce, often on a long-term basis
 Part-time work
Work done on any schedule less than the
standard 40-hour workweek and does not
qualify person as a full-time employee

Implications of part-time work:
Provides employers with flexibility in
controlling labor costs and dealing with
cyclical labor demands
Temporary workers may lack commitment
and be less productive
Contingency workers are often paid less and
don’t receive important fringe benefits

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John R. Schermerhorn, Jr.

Copyright ©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Copyright ©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Copyright ©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Motivation—the forces within the

Copyright ©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Copyright ©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Copyright ©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Copyright ©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Copyright ©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Copyright ©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Copyright ©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Copyright ©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Need for Need for

Copyright ©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

 Provides feedback on performance

Copyright ©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

People high in (nPower) prefer work that:

 Brings public recognition and attention

Copyright ©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

 Brings social approval

Copyright ©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

 Possible work outcomes

 Types of process theories:

Copyright ©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Copyright ©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Copyright ©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Copyright ©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

– Under-reward inequity (negative inequity)

Copyright ©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

 Referent’s inputs or outcomes

Copyright ©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Copyright ©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

work related outcomes

Copyright ©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Copyright ©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Motivation = Expectancy x Instrumentality x

If either E, I, or V is low, motivation will be low

Copyright ©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

 Support work efforts

 Clarify performance goals

Copyright ©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

 Identify rewards that are contingent on performance

Copyright ©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

 Link needs/desires with rewards

Copyright ©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

 Establish a frame of reference for feedback

 Provide a foundation for behavioral self-

Copyright ©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

How to Make Goal Setting Work for You:

• Set specific goals

Copyright ©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

respond positively if supervisory trust and support

Copyright ©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Copyright ©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Copyright ©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Copyright ©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Copyright ©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Copyright ©2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.