LAGUNA STATE POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY

SANTA CRUZ MAIN CAMPUS

BUSINESS LOGIC

Presented by: ALDON M. FRANCIA, MBA

 LAGUNA STATE POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY
SANTA CRUZ MAIN CAMPUS

Module 7:
Inductive Reasoning
Presented by:

Aldon M. Francia, MBA

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this module, students
should be able to:
1. Define inductive reasoning
2. Interpret the roles, functions, and
process in inductive reasoning.
3. Distinguish the strengths and
limitations of inductive reasoning.
What is Inductive
Reasoning?
Inductive reasoning is a method
of drawing conclusions by going from
the specific to the general. It’s usually
contrasted with deductive reasoning,
where you go from general information
to specific conclusions.
Inductive reasoning is also called
inductive logic or bottom-up reasoning.
Uses of Inductive Reasoning
Inductive reasoning is used in a number of
different ways, each serving a different purpose:
1. We use inductive reasoning in everyday life to build
our understanding of the world.
2. Inductive reasoning also underpins the scientific
method: scientists gather data through observation and
experiment, make hypotheses based on that data, and
then test those theories further. That middle step—
making hypotheses—is an inductive inference, and
they wouldn’t get very far without it.
3. Finally, despite the potential for weak conclusions, an
inductive argument is also the main type of reasoning in
academic life.
Steps in Inductive Reasoning
Observation: The first step in inductive reasoning is to
make observations of a particular phenomenon or
group of instances. These observations can be made
through various methods, such as experiments, surveys,
or data analysis.
Pattern Recognition: Once observations are made, the
next step is to identify patterns or regularities in the
data. This involves looking for similarities or
commonalities among the instances or data points.
Hypothesis Formulation: Based on the patterns or
regularities identified, a hypothesis or tentative
explanation is formulated. This hypothesis should
account for the observations made and provide a
possible explanation for the patterns identified.
Steps in Inductive Reasoning
Testing: The next step is to test the hypothesis
through further observations or experiments. This
involves collecting additional data and
comparing it to the hypothesis to determine if
it holds up or if it needs to be modified.
Evaluation: Once testing is completed, the
results are evaluated to determine the strength of
the hypothesis. If the results support the
hypothesis, if may be considered a valid
explanation for the observed phenomenon.
However, if the results do not support the
hypothesis, it may need to be revised or
Steps in Inductive Reasoning

Conclusion: The final step is to draw a

conclusion based on the evaluation of the
hypothesis. If the hypothesis is supported by
the data, it may be used to make predictions or
generalizations about the larger population or
phenomenon. However, if the hypothesis is not
supported, further research may be needed to
better understand the phenomenon.
Advantages
Flexibility: Inductive reasoning allows us to make
generalizations and predictions based on specific
observations, even when we do not have complete
information or a clear understanding of the underlying
mechanisms at work.
Creativity: Inductive reasoning can be a useful tool for
generating new ideas and hypotheses. By observing
patterns and trends in our data, we can develop new
theories or identify areas for further exploration.
Accessibility: Inductive reasoning is accessible to
people with varying levels of expertise or knowledge.
By relying on empirical observations, we can develop
insights and draw conclusions without requiring
specialized training or expertise.
Advantages
Real-world applicability: Inductive reasoning is used
in a variety of fields, from scientific research to
business and decision-making. By making predictions
based on past observations, we can make informed
decisions and develop effective strategies for achieving
our goals.
Development of theories: Inductive reasoning can be
used to develop theories that can be tested through
further observation or experimentation. This allows us
to refine our understanding of complex phenomena
and develop a more nuanced understanding of how
things work.
Limitations
Limited scope: Inductive reasoning relies on specific
observations to make generalizations, which means
that the conclusions we draw are limited to the scope of
our observations. This means that our conclusions may
not be applicable to broader contexts or situations.
Potential for bias: Inductive reasoning can be
influenced by our own biases and preconceptions, as
well as by the specific observations we choose to focus
on. This can lead to inaccurate or incomplete
conclusions.
Lack of certainty: Inductive reasoning is probabilistic
in nature, meaning that the conclusions we draw are
based on probability rather than certainty. This means
that our predictions and generalizations may not always
Limitations
Limited explanatory power: Inductive
reasoning can tell us what is likely to happen
based on past observations, but it may not tell
us why something is happening or how it
works. This can limit our ability to develop
deeper understanding of complex phenomena.
Lack of predictive power: Inductive reasoning
is limited to predicting what is likely to happen
based on past observations. It may not be able
to predict new or novel phenomena that have not
been observed before.
Find the next item in the
sequence:

1. December, November, October, ...

September

2. 3, 6, 9, 12, ...
15

3. 🡪, +, 🡪, ...

4. 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, ...
13 — This is called the
Fibonacci sequence.
 REASONING THAT A RULE OR
inductive
STATEMENT IS TRUE BECAUSE
reasoning
SPECIFIC CASES ARE TRUE.

conjecture A statement believed to be true

based on inductive reasoning.

Complete the conjecture:

The product of an odd and an even
number is even .

To do this, we consider some examples:

(2)(3) = 6 (4)(7) = 28 (2)(5) =
10
 IF A CONJECTURE IS TRUE, IT MUST BE
TRUE FOR EVERY CASE. JUST ONE
EXAMPLE FOR WHICH THE
CONJECTURE IS FALSE WILL DISPROVE
IT.
counterexampl A case that proves a conjecture
e false.
Example: Find a counterexample to
the conjecture that all students who
take Geometry are 10th graders.
 To Use Inductive
Reasoning
1. Look for a pattern.
2. Make a conjecture.
3. Prove the conjecture or find
a counterexample to disprove
Examples Showit. that each conjecture is false by
giving a counterexample.
1. The product of any two numbers is
greater than the numbers
themselves.
(-1)(5) = -5
2. Two complementary angles are
not congruent.
45º and 45º
Sometimes we can use inductive
reasoning to solve a problem that does
not appear to have a pattern.

Example: Find the sum of the first 20

odd numbers.

1 1
12
1+3 4
22
1+3+5 9
1+3+5 1 32
+7 6
4 2
Sum of first 20 odd 20 = 400
2

numbers?
These patterns can be expanded to find the “nth” term
using algebra. When you complete these sequences
by applying a rule, it is called a function.

Examples:Find the missing terms and the rule.

1 2 3 4 5 … 8 … 20 … n
-3 -2 -1 0 1 4 16 n—4

1 2 3 4 5 … 8 … 20 … n
32 39 46 53 60 81 165 7n+25

To find the pattern, the coefficient of n is the

difference between each term, and the value at 0 is
what is added or subtracted.
CONDITIONAL A statement that can be written as
STATEMENT an “if-then” statement.
Example:If today is Saturday, then
we don’t have to go to school.

hypothesis The part of the conditional following

the word “if”.
“today is Saturday” is the
hypothesis.
conclusio The part of the conditional following
n the word “then”.
“we don’t have to go to school” is
the conclusion.
 Conditional statement: p  q,
where
NOTATION
p is the hypothesis and
q is the conclusion.
Examples Identify the hypothesis and
conclusion:
1. If I want to buy a book, then I
need some money.

2. If today is Thursday, then tomorrow

is Friday.

3. Call your parents if you are running

late.
 To write a statement as a conditional,
identify the sentence’s hypothesis and
conclusion by figuring out which part of
the statement depends on the other.

Examples Write a conditional statement:

• Two angles that are complementary
are acute.
If two angles are complementary, then
they are acute.

• Even numbers are divisible by 2.

If a number is even, then it is divisible by
2.
truth T if a conditional is
value true, F if a conditional
is false.
The statement is false only when the
hypothesis is true and the conclusion is
false. To show that a conditional is
false, you need only find one
counterexample where the hypothesis is
true and the conclusion is false.

Hypothesis Conclusion Statement

T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
 Determine if each conditional is true.
If false, give a
counterexample.
EXAMPLES
1. If your zip code is 76012, then you live
in Texas.
Texas
2. IF A MONTH HASTrue
28 DAYS, THEN IT76012 IS FEBRUARY.
• SEPTEMBER ALSO HAS 28 DAYS, WHICH PROVES THE
CONDITIONAL FALSE.
3. IF 14 IS EVENLY DIVISIBLE BY 3, THEN TOMORROW
IS TUESDAY.
• THE HYPOTHESIS IS FALSE, SO THE
CONDITIONAL IS TRUE.
negation of “Not p”
p Notation:
~p
Example: The negation of the
statement “Blue is my favorite color,” is
“Blue is not my favorite color.”

Related Symbols
Conditionals pq
Conditional qp
Converse ~p 
~q
Inverse
~q
Contrapositive
~p
EXAMPL
Write the conditional, converse, inverse,
E
and contrapositive of the statement:
“A cat is an animal with four paws.”
Truth
Type Statement
Value
Conditional If an animal is a cat, then
T
(p  q) it has four paws.

Converse If an animal has four

F
(q  p) paws, then it is a cat.

Inverse If an animal is not a cat,

then it does not have F
(~p  four paws.
~q)
Contrapos- If an animal does not
itive have four paws, then it is T
(~q  not a cat.
~p)
EXAMPLE Write the conditional, converse, inverse,
and contrapositive of the statement:
“When n2 = 144, n = 12.”
Truth
Type Statement
Value
Conditional F
If n2 = 144, then n =
(p  q) 12. (n = —
12)
Converse
If n = 12, then n2 = T
(q  p) 144.

Inverse
If n2  144, then n  T
(~p  12
~q)
Contrapos-
F
itive If n  12, then n2 
144 (n = —
(~q 
12)
~p)