STRUCTURES

AND FORCES
 STRUCTURES AND FORCES
• What is a force?
• A force is a push or pull that can cause something to move. Measured in Newtons (N)

• What is a structure?
• An object that is made in a particular shape using particular materials.
• May have multiple parts e.g. building or may be one piece e.g. plastic container

• Where do they link?

• Gravity – whenever structures are designed to hold up heavy loads, the weight of the objects results in forces on
the structure itself
• The structure –the weight of the structure itself creates forces within the structure
• The environment – Wind, waves and earthquakes can exert large forces on structures
• Moving parts – If a structure has moving parts, the movement of the parts will create forces on the structure
TYPES OF STRUCTURES
• There are 5 main types of structures
• Frame
• Shell
• Arch
• Beam
• Box
FRAME STRUCTURES
• Structures that have a “frame” or “skeleton”
• Often “open frame” structure with no cladding.
• A “closed frame” structure has cladding.
• Generally made of steel.
• Examples of frame structures include
• Spiderweb
• Our bodies
 • Frames allow us to make large structures that are light and strong.
FRAME With a frame structure, multiple pieces are joined together to form a
skeleton. Modern office buildings and timber-framed houses are
STRUCTURES made by making a frame first and then attaching the walls and
windows etc.
FRAME STRUCTURES
• Other frame structures examples:
SHELL STRUCTURES
• These derive their strength from the contour into which they have been.
• Lighter than frame structures.
• Curves or ridges may be incorporated into a shell structure to strengthen it.
– can you think of any examples?
• Examples
• Egg box
• Car body
• Snail shell
• Shipping containers
• Corrugation is the process of shaping a material into a series of parallel
ridges. Corrugated cardboard or plastic consists of an inner corrugated
sheet and two outer flat sheets. The centre sheet gives the material its
strength.
STRENGTHNING STRUCTURES
Strengthening by bending and corrugating
• A flat piece of material can be made stronger by bending it back and forth repeatedly.
This is called a corrugated sheet.
• They are stronger because you have made the material thicker at the bent sections but
keeps the material light and cost effective.
• Widely used to make roofs, carboard boxes.

• LETS TEST IT OUT! In groups get a piece of paper and support it at both
ends, place an object and see if it falls through. Not corrugate the paper and
test again. What did you notice?
TIES AND STRUTS
• A member of a structure that is in tension is called a tie.
• Helps to prevent two objects from pulling apart and separating.
• Usually thin e.g. stays holding up the mast on a yacht.

• A member of a structure that is in compression is called a

strut.
• Stops two objects from moving closer together.
• E.g. columns holding up a building
BEAMS
•Beams are used to bridge a gap
between two structures and to support a
weight
• Usually made from wood, stone or
metal.
• Used over window and door openings
to support the wall above
• Also used as a support to hang things
from e.g. pulleys
• Need to be strong because they are
subject to strong bending forces from
the load they have to support.
BEAM SHAPES
• By making beams in certain shapes, it makes things less expensive and
more lightweight than having a full beam.
• Common shapes can be seen below. These are usually made from steel
and are widely used in the construction industry.
ARCHES
• An arch is a curved beam that can support
a great weight because of its shape.
• When you press down on an arch, it
doesn’t bend – it only compresses
• Arches are usually made from concrete,
brick, stone or metal
• They divert the downward pressure to its
side supports.
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STABILITY OF
STRUCTURES
When a structure is stable, it is
resistant to falling over.
Which of these three is most
stable do you think?

A
C

B
 STABILITY OF STRUCTURES
CENTRE OF GRAVITY
The centre of gravity of an object is the point at which all of its weight seems to
be concentrated, as if the whole object was just one point.
An object can be balanced on its centre of gravity.

E N T RE OF
THE C Y OF AN The stability of an object is determined by:
IT
GRAV THE POINT
B JE C T IS O F ITS • How high the centre of gravity is
O H AL L
H IC S TO
AT W E E M
E IG HT S • How far the centre of gravity is from the edge of its base
W BE
R AT E D.
O NC ENT
CO
 STABILITY OF STRUCTURES
A B C

• Object A has a high centre of gravity and a narrow base so it is not very stable
• Object B has a low centre of gravity and a wide base so it is very stable
• Object C has a centre of gravity directly over its only support point, so it is unstable.
STRENGTHNING STRUCTURES
Strengthening using shell structures
• An object can be strengthened by being moulded into non-flat shapes or shells.
• Known as shell structures.
• Example: Kids toys like lego. They are hollow and light but also extremely
strong. Another example includes an egg box.
STRENGTHNING STRUCTURES
Strengthening using struts and ties
• An object can be strengthened by the addition of struts and ties.
• See the example below

This wire
This wire This is This wooden
tie is
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BRIDGES
BRIDGES
– ARCH
BRIDGE
• A concrete arch takes the load under compression. As the
arch is not fully under the level of the walkway, a
combination of struts and ties is used to connect the walkway
to the arch.
BRIDGES – CABLE-
STAYED BRIDGE

• The roadway is suspended

from a concrete strut using
high-tension metal cables
(ties). This works because
concrete is resistant to
compression and steel wire is
resistant to tension.
 • This bridge demonstrates the use of multiple structural
BRIDGES – techniques in one bridge. The arch is made from a triangulated
SUSPENSION AND metal frame structure, and the arch takes the weight of the
ARCH SUSPENSION roadway, which is suspended from the arch using metal cables.
In a suspension bridge the cables are vertical, while in a cable-
BRIDGE
stayed bridge the cables run directly back to the strut at an
angle.
 STRUCTURES AND FORCES

O RDS • There are different types of forces that act in

W
K EY i s different ways on structures such as bridges,
e
Forc red chairs, buildings, in fact any structure.
easu
m n
i N • This includes stretching, squashing, bending
TO
NEW (N) and twisting.
S
K EY
WO R
• Too much force on a structure or object can
DS cause it to break or change shape.
Stress
i s t he
force
per • These are considerations to take when
unit ar
Measu ea. designing your own projects.
re d i n
 FORCES

COMPRESSION SHEAR
TENSION Forces are directed towards one Act in opposite directions
Stretch an object and pull it apart. another Are not aligned with each other
An object that can withstand this To squash the object. Push the parts of the object away
force has high tensile strength Two opposite forces are pushing from one another
against the object.

BENDING
Combination of tension and TORSION
compression. Twisting force
Causes materials to bend Rotates the object in opposite
A load is applied to a certain part directions
of the object/material
 FORCES - Examples

TENSION
• Cables supporting a bridge
COMPRESSION SHEAR
• Columns supporting a building • Paper being cut by a scissors
• Strings on a guitar
• Legs on a table • Hedge cutters
• Spokes on a bike wheel
• Struts
• Ropes on sails, tents, flag poles

BENDING
• A shelf with a bracket at either TORSION
end, supporting an object in the • Axles of cars and machines
middle • Twisting a Rubiks cube
• A bench with support either • Opening a jar/bottle lid
end with a person sitting on it.
STRUCTURES AND FORCES

FORCES IN STRUCTURES WITH

MULTIPLE PARTS
• Parts of a structure are often called
MEMBERS.
• It can sometimes be difficult to tell which
members in a structure are under
compression and which are under tension.

• Group Discussion
• Look at the diagram and identify which
parts are under tension or compression
 STRUCTURES AND FORCES
• PART A: Is in tension because the weight of
the computer is stretching it.

• PART B: Is under compression because the

weight of the computer unit and the members
above that make up the desk, are pushing
downwards and compressing it.

• PART C and D: This is the same member but

on the inside compression is taking place and
on the outside it is in tension (being stretched).
 Factor of safety (fos)
• The factor of safety of a structure is the ratio of its actual loading
capacity (c) over its required loading (r) expressed as a percentage.
• We need to know the maximum load the structure is capable of
carrying (c) as well as the load that it is required to carry(r).
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