Signals

&
Systems
1
 Introduction

Signal: Any physical quantity that varies with time, space, or any
independent variable or variables
a signal in mathematical terms is a function
A function is a dependent variable of some variable which
are independent variable.
The number of independent variables can be several.

2
 Introduction

Speech: acoustic pressure function of time

Picture: brightness function to two variables
System: process a set of input signals to get a set of output
signals
Electrical, Mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic etc (hardware
realization
Algorithm that computes an output from input signal
(software realization)

3
 Classification of Signals

Continuous time & Discrete time Signals

1

Continuous time signals: 0.8

0.6

Analog signals 0.4

Define for continuous

0.2

values of independent -0.2

-0.4

variable time t. -0.6

-0.8
Speech signal is function of -1
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000

time
Atmospheric pressure is
function of altitude
4
 Classification of Signals
Continuous time &1 Discrete time Signals
Discrete time signals: 0.8

0.6

Define at only discrete time 0.4

0.2
n, for discrete time signal 0

the independent variable -0.2

-0.4

takes on only at a discrete -0.6

-0.8
set of values. -1
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

The amplitude of discrete time signal between two time instants is

undefined. The discrete time signal is defined only for integers
values of the independent variable.
5
Monthly sales, stock market daily average etc.
 Classification of Signals
Continuous valued & Discrete valued Signals
The value of continuous time or discrete time signals can be
continuous or discrete.
Continuous valued signal: this signal takes on all the possible
values of finite or infinite range.
Discrete valued Signal: this signal takes on values from a finite
set of possible values.
Usually these values are equidistance and hence can be
expressed as in integer multiple of the distance between two
successive values. The discrete time signal having a set of
discrete values is called a digital signal. 6
 Classification of Signals
Continuous valued & Discrete valued Signals
All continuous time signals are analogue signal but all analogue
signals r not continuous time signals.
If the time is discretized but not the amplitude that is if the
independent variable is discretized but not dependent variable,
then it is still an analogue signal.
Therefore and analogue signal can be either continuous time or
discrete time.
Discrete time signals are also analogue signal if the discrete time
signal is quantized.

7
 Classification of Signals
Continuous valued & Discrete valued Signals
i.e. In a discrete time signal when the independent variable has
been discretized the amplitude is also discretized that is which is
allowed to take on only certain specific values, then it is said to
be discretized or quantised. So, if a discrete time signal passes
through A to D converter, then depending on the number of q of
bits, to the power q discrete amplitudes are possible; for
example, a 3 bits A to D converter gives 8 possible amplitudes.
After a 2D conversion, the signal is also coded in some form and
most usual form is the binary form. After discretization, the signal
become a binary number and that is what we call a digital signal.8
 Classification of Signals
Continuous in value & Continuous in time Signals

f(x) vs t
1

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2
Amplitude -->

-0.2

-0.4

-0.6

-0.8

-1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
time t-->

9
 Classification of Signals
Discrete in value & Continuous in time Signals

f(x) vs t
5

1
Amplitude -->

-1

-2

-3

-4

-5
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Time t -->

10
 Classification of Signals
Continuous in value & Discrete in time Signals
6

-2

-4

-6
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

2.5

1.5

0.5

-0.5

-1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

11
 Classification of Signals
Continuous in value & Discrete in time Signals

-2

-4

-6
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

12
 Classification of Signals
Continuous in value & Discrete in time Signals
6

-2

-4

-6
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1.5

0.5

-0.5
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
13
 Classification of Signals
Continuous in value & Discrete in time Signals

-2

-4

-6
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 14
 Classification of Signals
Continuous valued & Discrete valued Signals

discrete-time, discrete-valued c[n]

continuous-time, discrete-valued d(t)

15
 Classification of Signals
Multichannel and Multidimensional Signals
In some applications signals are generated by multiple sources or
multiple sensors. Such signals can be represented in vector form.
If xk(t) (k is integer) represents an signal from the kth sensor as a
function of time, the set of k =3 signals can be represented by a

( )
vector x(t) where ¿ 𝑥 1 (𝑡)
𝐱 (𝑡)= ¿ 𝑥 2 (𝑡)
¿ 𝑥 3 (𝑡)

Such vector of signals is referred as multichannel signal.

e.g. 3 lead and 12 lead electrocardiograms
16
 Classification of Signals
Multichannel and Multidimensional Signals
If a signal is function of a single independent variable then it is
one dimensional signal.
If a signal is function of M independent variable then it is M
dimensional signal.
e.g. Picture is two dimensional signal. The intensity or brightness
of picture I(x,y) at any point is function of two independent
variables.
The picture on black and white TV is represented bu I(x, y, t),
since the brightness is function of time also. Hence TV picture
may be treated as three dimensional signal. 17
 Classification of Signals
Multichannel and Multidimensional Signals
The colour TV picture may be described by three intensity
functions of the form Ir(x, y, t), Ig(x, y, t), and Ib(x, y, t)
corresponding to the brightness of the three principal colours
(red, green, and blue) as function of time.
Hence colour TV picture is three channel, three dimensional
signal and represented by vector

( )
¿ 𝐼 𝑟 (𝑥 , 𝑦 ,𝑡)
𝐈 (𝑥, 𝑦 ,𝑡)= ¿ 𝐼 𝑔 (𝑥, 𝑦 ,𝑡)
¿ 𝐼 𝑏 (𝑥, 𝑦 ,𝑡)

18
 Classification of Signals
Deterministic and random Signals
Deterministic Signal: A signal whose complete physical
description is known either in mathematical form or graphical
form.
The nature and amplitude of this signal at any time t can be
predicted.
e.g. x(t) = A cos(2πft)
Random Signal: A signal whose values can not be predicted
precisely but are known only in term of probabilistic description
such as mean value, mean square value etc.
e.g. Thermal noise in electrical circuits 19
 Transformations of the independent variable
Time Shifting
A signal x(t) may be shifted in time by replacing the independent
variable t by t – t0, where t0 is known as shifting factor.

If t0 > 0, the signal is shifted to right and this time shift results in a

delay of the signal by t0 units of time.

If t0 < 0, the signal is shifted to left and this time shift results in an

advance of the signal by | t0 | units of time.

20
 Transformations of the independent variable
Time Shifting
Original signal x(t) Delayed Signal x(t-2)
1 1

0.9 0.9

0.8 0.8

0.7 0.7

0.6 0.6

x(t-2)
x(t)

0.5 0.5

0.4 0.4

0.3 0.3

0.2 0.2

0.1 0.1

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
t t
Advanced Signal x(t+2)
1

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6
x(t+2)

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
-2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 21
t
 Transformations of the independent variable
Time Shifting
Original signal x(n) Delayed Signal x(n-2)
1 1

0.9 0.9

0.8 0.8

0.7 0.7

0.6 0.6

x(n-2)
x(n)

0.5 0.5

0.4 0.4

0.3 0.3

0.2 0.2

0.1 0.1

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
n n

Advanced Signal x(n+2)

1

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6
x(n+2)

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
22
-2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
 Transformations of the independent variable
Time Scaling
A signal may be scaled by replacing independent variable “t” by
“a t” where a is known as scaling factor.
If a > 1, the scaling results in compression (speeded up) and
If 0 < a < 1, the scaling results in expansion (slowed down)

23
 Transformations of the independent variable
Time Scaling
Original signal x(t) Compressed signal x(3t)
1 1

0.9 0.9

0.8 0.8

0.7 0.7

0.6 0.6

x(3t)
x(t)

0.5 0.5

0.4 0.4

0.3 0.3

0.2 0.2

0.1 0.1

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
t t
Expanded signal x(t/3)
1

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6
x(t/3)

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 50 100 150 200 250
24
t
 Transformations of the independent variable
Time Reversal
A signal may be reversed by replacing independent variable t by
-t.
The result of this operation is folding or refection or time
reversal of the signal about the time origin t = 0.

25
 Transformations of the independent variable
Time Reversal

Original x(t) Folded signal x(-t)

1 1

0.9 0.9

0.8 0.8

0.7 0.7

0.6 0.6

x(-t)
x(t)

0.5 0.5

0.4 0.4

0.3 0.3

0.2 0.2

0.1 0.1

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 -20 -18 -16 -14 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0
t t

26
 Transformations of the independent variable
Combined transformations
In many situations we need to apply the three transform
simultaneously. The most general operation is x(at – b) which
involves all three transform.
1. Time shift x(t) by b to obtain x(t-b). Then time scale the
shifted version x(t-b) by a (i.e. replace t by “at”) to obtain
x(at – b)
2. Time scale x(t) by a to obtain x(at). Then time shift x(at) by
b/a (i.e. replace t by t – b/a) to obtained
x(a(t – b/a) = x(at – b)
3. In either case if a is negative time scaling involve time reversal
27
 Transformations of the independent variable
Combined transformations
Time reversal and time shifting of a signal are not commutative.
Let TD is time delay operation (time shifting)
and FD is folding operation, then
TDk [x(n)] = x(n – k), k > 0
FD [x(n)] = x(– n)
Now
TDk { FD [x(n)] } = TDk [x(– n)] = x(– (n – k)) = x( – n +k)

FD {TDk [x(n)] } = FD [ x(n – k)] = x(– n – k)

Therefore sequence is time shifting, time scaling and time
reversal. 28
 Transformations of the independent variable
Combined transformations
Sketch the following signals
1. x(3t)
2. x(3t+2)
3. x(-2t-1)

x(t)

-1 0 1 t
29
 Singularity Functions
In signals and systems step, impulse and ramp functions are very
important functions. They serve as the basis for representing
other signals. All these functions are known as singularity
functions.
Singularity is a point at which a function does not possess a
derivative. Each singularity function has singular point at the
origin.
Singularity functions are also defined as generalised functions. A
generalized function is defined by its effect on the other function
instead of its value at every incident of time.

30
 Singularity Functions
These are discontinuous functions or their derivatives are
discontinuous.
A singularity is a point at which a function does not possess a
derivative.
In other words, a singularity function is discontinuous at its
singular points.
The commonly used singularity functions are:
Step Function, Ramp Function, and Impulse Function

31
 Singularity Functions
Unit Step Function:
The continuous-time unit-step function is defined as:

{
𝑢(𝑡 )= ¿ 1 𝑡 > 0
¿ 0 𝑡 <0

The value of a unit-step function is one, for values of t > 0, and it

is zero, for values of t < 0.
It is undefined at t = 0. The unit-step function has a value
between 0 and 1, at t = 0.
The value of the unit-step function changes suddenly, at t = 0.
Because of the step change in unit-step function at t= 0, the value
of derivative of unit step function is infinite at t = 0. 32
 Singularity Functions
Unit Step Function:
In other words, the unit-step function is discontinuous at t = 0. It
can be seen that the derivative of unit-step function is zero at all
instants, except t = 0. Unit step signal u(t)
2

1.5

1
u(t)

0.5

-0.5

-1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
t
33
 Singularity Functions
Unit Step Function:
The discrete-time unit-step function is defined as:

{
𝑢(𝑛)= ¿ 1𝑛 ≥ 0
¿ 0 𝑛 <0
Unit step signal u(n)
2

1.5

1
u(n)

0.5

-0.5

-1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
n
34
 Singularity Functions
Continuous Time Unit Impulse Function:
Continuous time unit impulse function is also known as Dirac
Delta Function.
It is a pulse having very small width and infinitely large height and
the overall area maintained at unity.

𝛿(𝑡)= { ¿ 1𝑡=0
¿ 0 𝑜𝑡h𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
∞

∫ 𝛿(𝑡)𝑑𝑡=1 area under the impulse function is one.

−∞

35
 Singularity Functions
Properties of Continuous Time Unit Impulse Function:
1. Shifting Property

36
 Singularity Functions
Properties of Continuous Time Unit Impulse Function:

Change the variable t-t0 = τ

This function is discontinuous at t0 = t1 and t0 = t2

37
 Singularity Functions
Properties of Continuous Time Unit Impulse Function

The value of function at t1 or t2 is given by

In general, this property can be written as

Therefore, the signal x(t) can be expressed as a continuous sum of

weighted impulses.

38
 Singularity Functions
Properties of Continuous Time Unit Impulse Function:
2. Scaling Property

Put at = τ and solve

39
 Singularity Functions
Properties of Continuous Time Unit Impulse Function:
3. Impulse function is an even function
𝛿(𝑡)=𝛿(− 𝑡) use scaling property
4. Sampling or Multiplication Property
When we multiply the signal x(t) by unit impulse samples
the value of the signal at the point at which the impulse is
located

40
 Singularity Functions
Properties of Continuous Time Unit Impulse Function:
5. Differentiation Property

The derivative of the singularity function is defined as

41
 Singularity Functions
Properties of Continuous Time Unit Impulse Function:
6. Amplitude Reversal

𝑡𝛿′ (𝑡)=−𝛿(𝑡) 42
 Singularity Functions
Derivatives of impulse function (Doublet function)
Derivatives of all order of the impulse function are also
singularity function.
The first derivative is referred as a doublet function. A doublet
function is

1.
Area under unit doublet function is zero

43
 Singularity Functions
Derivatives of impulse function (Doublet function)
2.

Where x(t) is any continuous function having continuous first

derivation at t = 0

44
 Singularity Functions
Discrete Time Unit Impulse Function:
The discrete time unit impulse function is defined as

{
𝛿(𝑛)= ¿ 1 , 𝑛=0
¿ 0 𝑛≠ 0

Properties of Discrete Time Unit Impulse Function

1. δ(kn) = δ(n) where k is integer
δ(n) = 1 for n = 0
= 0 for n
δ(kn) = 1 for kn = 0 → n = 0
= 0 for kn
= δ(n) 45
 Singularity Functions
Properties of Discrete Time Unit Impulse Function
2. The unit impulse function and unit step function are related by
δ(n) = u(n) – u(n – 1)
u(n) = 1 for n ≥ 0
=0 for n < 0
u(n) = δ(n) + δ(n - 1) + δ(n - 2) + …
=
u(n-1) = δ(n - 1) + δ(n - 2) + …
=
u(n) – u(n-1) = - =

46
 Singularity Functions
Properties of Discrete Time Unit Impulse Function
3. For any arbitrary sequence x(n)
x(n) δ(n – k) = x(k) δ(n – k)
δ(n-k) = 1 for n - k = 0 → n = k
= 0 for n - k
Therefore

47
 Singularity Functions
Properties of Discrete Time Unit Impulse Function
4. Consider the sum of δ function from - ∞ to n

48
 Singularity Functions
Unit Ramp Function
The continuous time unit ramp function is given by

{
𝑟 ( 𝑡 )=𝑡𝑢 (𝑡 )= ¿ 𝑡 ,𝑡 ≥ 0
¿0𝑡<0
The discrete time unit ramp function is given by

𝑟 ( 𝑛)=𝑡𝑢 (𝑛)= ¿ 𝑛 , 𝑛 ≥ 0
¿ 0 𝑛< 0 {

49
 Singularity Functions
Prove the following relationships
𝑡
𝑑
1. 𝑢(𝑡)=𝛿(𝑡)𝑜𝑟𝑢(𝑡)=∫ 𝛿(𝜏)𝑑𝜏
𝑑𝑡 −∞

Use integration by part for first numerical

∫ 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑔′(𝑥)𝑑𝑥=𝑓 (𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)−∫ 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑓 ′(𝑥)𝑑𝑥

50
 Singularity Functions
Draw the waveform of following signals

1.𝑥(𝑡)=𝑢(𝑡+2)
51
 Singularity Functions
Draw the waveform of following signals

1. 𝑥 (𝑡)=𝑟(𝑡−1) 52
 Classification of Signals
Periodic and Aperiodic Signals
Periodic Signal: A continuous-time periodic signal exhibits
(repeats) the same value at integer multiples of T, where T is
called the period of the signal.
A discrete-time periodic signal does not change its value for any
discrete-time shift N.
Mathematically, for any t and N we have, respectively
x(t + T) = x(t), for all t
x(n + N) = x(n), for all n
The signals which are not satisfy the above equations are
aperiodic signals. 53
 Classification of Signals
Properties of Periodic Signals
1. A periodic signal is an everlasting signal.
2. A periodic signal can be generated by periodic extension of
any segment of x(t) of duration T.
3. Area under x(t) over any interval is same. For any real a& b
𝑎+ 𝑇 𝑏+𝑇

∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑑𝑡= ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑎 𝑏

4. The sum of periodic signals is not necessarily periodic. The

sum is periodic if and only if all the ratios of the period of first
signal to period of another signals in the sum be rational. The
period of resulting signal is LCM{T1, T2, ...Tn} 54
 Classification of Signals
Periodicity of continuous Sinusoidal Signals
Let x(t) = A sin(2πFt + φ)
And
y(t) = B cos(2πFt + φ)
These two signals are always periodic with period T = 1/F.
Consider a signal x(t) = A sin(2πF1t + φ) + B cos(2πF2t + φ)

Let x1(t) = A sin(2πF1t + φ) with period T1 = 1/F1.

x2(t) = B cos(2πF2t + φ) with period T2 = 1/F2.

If T1/T2 is rational then x(t) is periodic with period LCM{T1, T2}

For multiplication of signals we need to convert the multiplication
55
in to addition using trigonometric relations.
 Classification of Signals
Periodicity of Discrete Sinusoidal Signals
Let x(n) = A sin(2πkn/N )
And
y(n) = B cos(2πkn/N)
These two signals are periodic if k/N is rational with period N.
Consider a signal x(n) = A sin(2πK1n/N1) + B cos(2πk2n/N2)

Let x1(n) = A sin(2πk1n/N1) with period N1

x2(n) = B cos(2πk2n/N2) with period N2

If N1/N2 is rational then x(n) is periodic with period LCM{N1, N2}

For multiplication of signals we need to convert the multiplication
56
in to addition using trigonometric relations.
 Classification of Signals
Periodicity of Exponential Signals
Let x(t) = A e-j2πFt
Or x(t) = A ej2πFt
These two signals are always periodic with period T = 1/F.
Let x(n) = A e-j2πkn/N
Or x(n) = A ej2πkn/N
These two signals are periodic if k/N is rational with period N.

57
 Classification of Signals
Check whether the following signal are periodic or aperiodic
signal. In case of periodic signal find the period of the signal.
1. x(t) = sin(π t/4)
2. x(t) = sin(π t/6) + 3 cos(π t/4)
3. x(t) = sin(2π t/5) cos(4π t/3)
4. x(n) = cos(8π n/15)
5. x(n) = sin (4n)
6. x(n) = sin (3π n/4) + sin (π n/3)
7. x(n) = e-j π n/6

58
 Classification of Signals
Even and Odd Signals
A continuous-time signal and a discrete-time signal are said to be
even if they satisfy, respectively,
x( - t) = x(t)
x( - n) = x(n)
Hence an even signal has the same value at instant t (or n) and –t
(or –n). It is symmetrical about the vertical axis.

59
 Classification of Signals
Even and Odd Signals
Analogously, a continuous-time signal and a discrete-time signal
are said to be odd if they satisfy, respectively,
x(- t) = - x(t)
x(- n) = - x(n)
Hence the value of odd signal at instant t (or n) is the negative of
its value at the instant –t (or –n).
It is anti symmetrical about the vertical axis.
An odd signal must be zero at t = 0 (or n = 0) to satisfy the above
equations i.e. x(0) = - x(0)

60
 Classification of Signals
Even and Odd components of Signals
Every signal can be expressed as a sum of even and odd
components
A continuous-time signal
x(t) = E {x(t)} + O {x(t)} = xe(t) + xo(t)

Where E {x(t)} = xe(t) even component of the signal

and O {x(t)} = xo(t) odd component of the signal

Similarly for discrete-time signal
x(n) = E {x(n)} + O {x(n)} = xe(n) + xo(n)

61
 Classification of Signals
Even and Odd components of Signals
The even part is given by
𝑥(𝑡)+𝑥 (− 𝑡) 𝑥 (𝑛)+𝑥 (−𝑛)
𝑥 𝑒(𝑡)= 𝑥 𝑒(𝑛)=
2 2

The odd part is given by

𝑥 (𝑡)− 𝑥 (− 𝑡) 𝑥(𝑛)− 𝑥 (−𝑛)

𝑥 0 (𝑡)= 𝑥 0 (𝑛)=
2 2

62
 Classification of Signals
Properties of Continuous time Even and Odd Signals
1. If x1(t) is an odd signal and x2(t) is an even signal then

a. y1(t) = x1(t) x2(t)

i.e. Even signal x Odd signal = Odd signal
b. y2(t) = x1(t) x1(t)
i.e. Odd signal x Odd signal = Even signal
c. y3(t) = x2(t) x2(t)
i.e. Even signal x Even signal = Even signal

63
 Classification of Signals
Properties of Continuous time Even and Odd Signals
2. If x(t) is an even signal, then
∞ ∞

∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑑𝑡=2 ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
−∞ 0
∞

3. If x(t) is an odd signal, then ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑑𝑡=0

−∞
4. If x(t) is an even signal then its derivative is an odd signal
5. If x(t) is an odd signal then its derivative is an even signal
6. If x(t) is an arbitrary signal with its even and odd part
denoted by xe(t) = E {x(t)}, xo(t) = O {x(t)}, then
∞ ∞ ∞

∫ 𝑥 2
(𝑡)𝑑𝑡= ∫ 𝑒
𝑥 2
(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 + ∫ 𝑜 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑥2

−∞ −∞ −∞
64
 Classification of Signals
Properties of Discrete time Even and Odd Signals
1. If x1(n) is an odd signal and x2(n) is an even signal then

a. y1(n) = x1(n) x2(n)

i.e. Even signal x Odd signal = Odd signal
b. y2(n) = x1(n) x1(n)
i.e. Odd signal x Odd signal = Even signal
c. y3(n) = x2(n) x2(n)
i.e. Even signal x Even signal = Even signal

65
 Classification of Signals
Properties of Continuous time Even and Odd Signals
2. If x(n) is an∞even signal, then
∞

∑ 𝑥 (𝑛)=𝑥 (0)+2 ∑ 𝑥(𝑛)

𝑛=− ∞ 𝑛=1

3. If x(n) is an odd signal, then

∞

∑ 𝑥 (𝑛)=0
𝑛=− ∞
4. If x(n) is an arbitrary signal with its even and odd part
denoted by xe(n) = E {x(n)}, xo(t) = O {x(n)}, then
∞ ∞ ∞

∑ 2
𝑥 (𝑛)= ∑ 2
𝑥 (𝑛)+
𝑒 ∑ 𝑥 2𝑜 (𝑛)
𝑛=− ∞ 𝑛=− ∞ 𝑛=− ∞

66
 Classification of Signals
Properties of Continuous time Even and Odd Signals
1. Determine the even and odd part of unit step function u(n).
− 2𝑡
2. Find the even and odd part of 𝑥(𝑡)=𝑒 cos(¿𝑡)¿

67
 Classification of Signals
Energy and Power Signals
The energy of a continuous time signal is defined as
∞
𝐸 𝑥 = ∫ |𝑥(𝑡)| 𝑑𝑡
2

−∞
The energy of a discrete time signal is defined as
∞

∑ |𝑥 (𝑛)|
2
𝐸 𝑥=
𝑛=−∞

The power of a continuous time signal is defined as

T 2 T
1 1
 
2 2
Px  lim x(t ) dt  lim x(t ) dt
T  T T 2 T  2T T

The power of a discrete time signal is defined as

N
1
 x ( n)
2
Px  lim
N  2N 1 n N

68
 Classification of Signals
Energy and Power Signals
• If 0 < Ex < ∞, i.e. Ex is finite then the given signal is energy signal
• If Ex = ∞; but 0 < Px < ∞, i.e. Px is finite then the given signal is
power Signal
 A signal can not be both energy signal and a power signal.
 A signal may be neither energy nor power signal.
 All practical signals have finite energies and therefore energy
signals.
 It is impossible to generate a true power signal in practice as
such signals has infinite duration and infinite energy.
 All finite periodic signals are power signals. 69
 Classification of Signals
Energy and Power Signals
1. Determine whether the following power or energy signals or
neither

𝑎.𝑥(𝑡)= 𝐴sin (¿𝑡)−∞<𝑡<∞¿

70
 Classification of Signals
Causal, Anticausal and Noncausal Signals
Causal signal: It a signal that does not start before t = 0
i.e. x(t) is causal signal if
x(t) = 0, t < 0
Anticausal signal: It the signal having zero values for t ≥ 0
i.e. x(t) is anticausal signal if
x(t) = 0, t ≥ 0
Noncausal signal: It is signal starts before t = 0.

71
 Commonly used elementary Signal
Real Exponential Signals
Continuous time: x(t) = C eat
where both C and a are both real parameter.
C is amplitude of the exponential signal measured at time t = 0.
If a > 0 then as t increases x(t) is growing exponential.
If a < 0 then as t increases x(t) is decaying exponential.
Discrete time: x(n) = C rn = C eαn where r = eα
If I r I > 1 growing exponential
If I r I < 1 decaying exponential
If r is +ve then all values of x(n) are of same sign.
If r is -ve then the sign of x(n) are alternates. 72
 Commonly used elementary Signal
Complex Exponential Signals
Continuous time: x(t) = C eat
where both C or a or both are complex
Discrete time: x(n) = C rn = C eαn where r = eα
where both C or r or both are complex

73
 Commonly used elementary Signal
Signum Function {sgn(t)} is defined by

{
¿1,𝑡>0
𝑠𝑔𝑡 (𝑡 )= ¿ 0 , 𝑡 =0
¿ −1 , 𝑡< 0

The signum function can be expressed in terms of unit step

function.
𝑠𝑔𝑡 (𝑡 )=− 1+ 2𝑢 (𝑡 )

74
 Commonly used elementary Signal
Sampling Function {Sa(t)} is defined by
sin 𝑡
𝑆𝑎(𝑡)=
𝑡
The denominator is an increasing function of t and the numerator
is bounded i.e. I sin t I ≤ 1
Sampling Function
1

0.8 Sa(t) is an even function of t

0.6
having its peak at t =0 and
zero crossing at t = ± nπ
0.4
Sa(t)

0.2

-0.2

-0.4
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
t 75
 Continuous time & Discrete time Systems
In continuous time system the continuous time inputs are
transformed to continuous time outputs.
x(t)  y(t)
In discrete time system the discrete time inputs are transformed
to discrete time outputs.
x(n)  y(n)

76
 Classifications of Systems
Linear and Nonlinear System
A system is said to be linear if it obeys the superposition theorem
Let x1(t)  y1(t) and

x2(t)  y2(t)
Then the system is linear if
• The response to x1(t) + x2(t)  y1(t) + y2(t) (additivity)

• The response to a x1(t)  a y1(t) (scaling or homogeneity)

These two property defining the linearity can be combined in to
signal statement
Continuous time
77
 Classifications of Systems
Linear and Nonlinear Systems
Discrete time
ax1(n) + bx2(n)  ay1(n) + by2(n) (Superposition)

Check the linearity of the following systems.

a. y(t) = t x(t)
b. y(t) = x2(t)
c. y(n) = 2 x(n) – 3

78
 Classifications of Systems
Linear and Nonlinear Systems
Discrete time
ax1(n) + bx2(n)  ay1(n) + by2(n) (Superposition)

Check the linearity of the following systems.

a. y(t) = t x(t)
b. y(t) = x2(t)
c. y(n) = 2 x(n) – 3

79
 Classifications of Systems
Check the linearity of the following systems.
a. y(t) = t x(t)
Consider two arbitrary inputs x1(t) and x2(t)

x1(t) → y1(t) = t x1(t)

x2(t) → y2(t) = t x2(t)

x3(t) → y3(t) = t x3(t)

Let x3(t) be a linear combination of x1(t) and x2(t) i.e.

x3(t) = a x1(t) + b x2(t)

Where a and b are arbitrary scalers. If the system is linear then
y3(t) = a y1(t) + b y2(t) …1 80
 Classifications of Systems
Check the linearity of the following systems.
a. y(t) = t x(t)
From LHS of the equation 1
y3(t) = t x3(t) = t [a x1(t) + b x2(t)]

= a t x1(t) + b t x2(t)

= a y1(t) + b y2(t)
= RHS
Therefore the system is linear.

81
 Classifications of Systems
Check the linearity of the following system.
b. y(t) = x2(t)
Consider two arbitrary inputs x1(t) and x2(t)

x1(t) → y1(t) = x21(t)

x2(t) → y2(t) = x22(t)

x3(t) → y3(t) = x23(t)

Let x3(t) be a linear combination of x1(t) and x2(t) i.e.

x3(t) = a x1(t) + b x2(t)

Where a and b are arbitrary scalers. If the system is linear then
y3(t) = a y1(t) + b y2(t) …1 82
 Classifications of Systems
Check the linearity of the following system.
b. y(t) = x2(t)
Consider the LHS of the equation 1
y3(t) = x23(t) = [a x1(t) + b x2(t)]2

= a2 x21(t) + b2 x22(t) + 2ab x1(t) x2(t)

= a2 y21(t) + b2 y22(t) + 2ab x1(t) x2(t)

≠ RHS
Therefore the system is nonlinear system.

83
 Classifications of Systems
Linear and Nonlinear Systems
For the system described by the following equations, determine
linearity of the systems

𝑑
𝑎. 𝑦(𝑡)+3𝑦(𝑡)=𝑥(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
84
 Classifications of Systems
Time varying and Time invariant Systems
Time invariant systems: A system is invariant if the behaviour and
characteristics of the system do not change with time. i.e. a time
shift in the input signal causes an identical time shift in output
signal. For continuous time system
If x(t)  y(t)
then x(t – t0)  y(t – t0)
For discrete time system
If x(n)  y(n)
then x(n – n0)  y(n – n0)
85
 Classifications of Systems
Time varying and Time invariant Systems
Procedure to test whether the system is time invariant or not
1. Let y1(t) be the output corresponding to input x1(t)

2. Consider second input x2(t) obtained by shifting x1(t);

x2(t) = x1(t – t0) and find the output y2(t) corresponding to x2(t)

3. From step 1 find y1(t – t0) and compare with y2(t)

4. If y2(t) = y1(t – t0), then the system is time invariant otherwise

it is time varying system.

86
 Classifications of Systems
Time varying and Time invariant Systems
For each of following system, determine whether the system is
time invariant or not.
1. y(n) = n x(n)
2. Y(n) = x(– n)
3. y(t) = sin[x(t)]
4. y(t) = x(2t)

87
 Classifications of Systems
Time varying and Time invariant Systems
Determine whether the system is time invariant or not.
1. y(n) = n x(n)
Consider an arbitrary input x1(n)

x1(n) → y1(n) = n x1(n)

x2(n) → y2(n) = n x2(n)

Let x2(n) be obtained by shifting x1(n) in time i.e.

x2(n) = x1(n – n0)

If the system is invariant then
y2(n) = y1(n – n0) …1
88
 Classifications of Systems
Time varying and Time invariant Systems
Consider the LHS of equation 1
y2(n) = n x2(n) = n x1(n – n0)
Now consider
y1(n) = n x1(n)

y1(n – n0) = (n – n0) x1(n – n0)

Here y2(n) ≠ y1(n – n0)

Hence the system is not time invariant.

89
 Classifications of Systems
Time varying and Time invariant Systems
Determine whether the system is time invariant or not.
1. y(t) = sin[ x(t)]
Consider an arbitrary input x1(t)

x1(t) → y1(t) = sin[x1(n)]

x2(t) → y2(t) = sin[x2(n)]

Let x2(t) be obtained by shifting x1(t) in time i.e.

x2(t) = x1(t – t0)

If the system is invariant then
y2(t) = y1(t – t0) …1
90
 Classifications of Systems
Time varying and Time invariant Systems
Consider the LHS of equation 1
y2(t) = sin[x2(t)] = sin[x1(t – t0)]
Now consider
y1(t) = sin[x1(t)]

y1(t – t0) = sin[x1(t – t0)]

Here y2(t) = y1(t – t0)

Hence the system is time invariant.

91
 Classifications of Systems
Causal Systems
Nonanticipatory, Physically realizable
The output of the system at any time t0, n0 depends on the value
of the input at the present time and in the past.
i.e. t ≤ t0 or n ≤ n0

If two inputs x1(n) and x2(n) to a causal system are identical up to

some time t0, n0, the corresponding outputs must also be equal
up to this time.
The causal system can not predict if the two inputs will be
different after t0, n0 (in future)
92
 Classifications of Systems
Causal Systems
For each of the following input output relationships, determine
whether the corresponding system is causal
A . y(n) = n x(n)
B. y(n) = x(-n)
C. y(n) = sin(x(t))
D. y(t) = x(2t)
E. y(t) = x(t) cos(t + 1)

93
 Classifications of Systems
Causal Systems
A . y(n) = n x(n)
Consider the output y(n) at a positive time n0

y(n)|n = n0 = y(n0) = n x(n)|n = n0 = n0 x(n0)

Now, consider the output y(n) at a negative point time -n0

y(n)|n = -n0 = y(-n0) = n x(n)|n = -n0 = -n0 x(-n0)

In both the cases the present output depends upon present input
and hence the system is causal

94
 Classifications of Systems
Causal Systems
B. y(n) = x(-n)
Consider the output y(n) at a positive time n0

y(n)|n = n0 = y(n0) = x(-n)|n = n0 = x(-n0)

Now, consider the output y(n) at a negative point time -n0

y(n)|n = -n0 = y(-n0) = x(-n)|n = -n0 = x(n0)

First case the present output depends upon past input and
In second case the present output depends upon future input
hence the system is noncausal.

95
 Classifications of Systems
Stable Systems
A system is said to be bounded input bounded output (BIBO)
stable if and only if every bounded input results in bounded
output.
Signal x(t) is said to be bounded if its magnitude does not grow
beyond the limit (bound)
I x(t) I ≤ Bx < ∞ for all t.
A system is BIBO stable if for any bounded input x(t), the
response y(t) is also bounded.
I x(t) I ≤ Bx < ∞  I y(t) I ≤ By < ∞
96
 Classifications of Systems
Stable Systems
For each of the following input output relationships, determine
whether the corresponding system is stable or not.
a. y(t) = t x(t)
b. Y(t) = ex(t)
c. y(n) = 1/3 [x(n) + x(n-1) + x(n-2)

97
 Classifications of Systems
Stable Systems
a. y(t) = t x(t)
Assume that
|x(t)| ≤ Bx < ∞ for all t
Using the given input output relation, we have
y(t) = t x(t)
and so we may write
|y(t)| = |t x(t)| = |t||x(t)| = |t| Bx
As t → ∞ the output |y|→ ∞ which is unbounded, so the system
is unstable
98
 Classifications of Systems
Systems With and Without Memory
System with memory
Memory System or Dynamic System
A system to said to be dynamic system if its output signal
depends on the past and/or future values of input signal.
Memoryless system or Static or Instantaneous
A system said to be static system if its output depends upon only
present value of input signal.

99
 Classifications of Systems
Invertibility and Inverse Systems
A system is invertible if by observing the output, we can
determine the input.
i.e. For invertible system, there is an inverse system which when
cascaded with the original system gives output which is input of
the first system.

x(n) System y(n) Inverse w(n) = x(n)

System

100