DEPARTMENT OF MECHATHRONICS ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY OF BENIN,
BENIN CITY

Electromagnetic Theory (MTE 312)

By

Engr. Lukman Adewale AJAO

28/01/2024 M.Eng (FUTMinna), PGDCS (Unilorin), COREN Regtd., MIEEE, MNATE 1
 OUTLINES

 Review of vector analysis

 Electrostatic and magnetostatic
 Simple boundary value problems
 Analysis of fields in dielectric and magnetic media
 Time varying fields and maxwell’s equation
 Plane wave and wave phenomena
 Transmission of energy and practical applications

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 What is Electromagnetic Theory?
Electromagnetic theory is the branch of physics
that studies the interaction between electric and
magnetic fields.
It explains how electric charges and currents
produce electric and magnetic forces, and how
these forces affect other charges and currents.
It also describes how electromagnetic waves,
such as light, radio waves, microwaves, and X-
rays, are generated and propagate through space.

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 What is Electromagnetic Theory?

• The electromagnetic force is one of the four

fundamental forces of nature.
 It is the dominant force in the interactions of
atoms and molecules.
 Electromagnetism can be thought as a
combination of electrostatics and magnetism,
two distinct but closely intertwined Electromagnetic forces occur between any two
phenomena. charged particles, causing an attraction between
 It is proved by several mathematician such as particles with opposite charges and repulsion between
particles with the same charge,
Coulomb, Gauss and Faraday. Also, Maxwell's
while magnetism is an interaction that occurs
equations used to explain the formation and
exclusively between charged particles in relative
interaction of electromagnetic fields. motion.
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 What is Electromagnetic Theory?

The electromagnetic theory is based on four The behavior of electric and magnetic fields, whether
in cases of electrostatics, magnetostatics, or
fundamental equations, known as Maxwell’s electrodynamics (electromagnetic fields), is governed
equations, that relate the electric and by Maxwell's equations. In the vector field formalism,
these are:
magnetic fields to their sources and to each
other.
Maxwell’s equations unify the previously
separate laws of electricity and magnetism,
such as Coulomb’s law, Gauss’s law,
Faraday’s law, and Ampere’s law. They also
reveal the electromagnetic nature of light
and other forms of radiation .

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 Examples of Electromagnetic waves
A linearly polarized electromagnetic wave going in the z-
axis, with E denoting the electric field and perpendicular B
denoting magnetic field is shown in Fig. below.

 Radio wave

 Microwave

 Infrared light

 Visible light

 Gamma ray
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 Electromagnetic Theory

We will explore the basic concepts and principles of

electromagnetic theory, such as electric charge, electric field,
magnetic field, electric flux, magnetic flux, electric potential,
current density, Lorentz force, electromagnetic induction,
electromagnetic waves, polarization, reflection, refraction,
interference, diffraction, and more. We will also learn how to
apply electromagnetic theory to various phenomena and
applications, such as electrostatics, magnetostatics,
electrodynamics, circuits, antennas, transmission lines,
waveguides, optical fibers, lasers, LEDs, solar cells, MRI
scanners, and more.

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 Electromagnetic Theory

What is Electric Charge? For instance, when the net electric charge of an
object is non-zero and motionless, the
Electric charge is a fundamental property of matter that
phenomenon is known as static electricity. This
causes it to experience a force when placed in an electric can easily be produced by rubbing two dissimilar
materials together, such as rubbing amber with
field. There are two types of electric charges: positive and
fur or glass with silk. So, non-conductive
negative. Like charges repel each other, and opposite materials can be charged to a significant degree,
either positively or negatively.
charges attract each other. The unit of electric charge is the
* When an object's net charge is zero, the charge
coulomb ©. can be distributed non-uniformly in the object
(e.g., due to an external electromagnetic field, or
Electric charge is conserved in any physical process. This
bound polar molecules). In such cases, the
means that the total amount of electric charge in a closed object is said to be polarized. The charge due to
polarization is known as bound charge, while the
system remains constant. Electric charge can be
charge on an object produced by electrons
transferred from one object to another by physical contact gained or lost from outside the object is called
free charge. The motion of electrons in
or by induction.
conductive metals in a specific direction is known
as electric current.
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 Electromagnetic Theory

Example of electric discharges from nature:

From ancient times, people were familiar with four types
of phenomena that today would all be explained using
the concept of electric charge:
(a) lightning,
(b) the torpedo fish (or electric ray),
(c) St Elmo's Fire or Witchfire (is a weather The upper part of the thunderstorm cloud becomes positively
charged while the middle to the lower part of the thunderstorm
phenomenon which luminous plasma is created by a cloud becomes negatively charged.

corona discharge from a rod-like like mast)

When the rising ice crystals
(d) Amber rubbed with fur would attract small light collide with graupel, the ice
crystals become positively
objects. charged and the graupel
becomes negatively charged.

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 The Kelvin water dropper

The Kelvin water dropper, invented by Scottish scientist

William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) in 1867, is a type of
electrostatic generator. Kelvin referred to the device as
his water-dropping condenser or the Kelvin electrostatic
generator.
A typical setup is shown in Fig. A reservoir of water or other conducting
liquid (top, grey) is connected to two hoses that release two falling
streams of drops, which land in two buckets or containers (bottom, blue
and red). Each stream passes (without touching) through a metal ring or
open cylinder which is electrically connected to the opposite receiving
container; the left ring (blue) is connected to the right bucket, while the
right ring (red) is connected to the left bucket. The containers must be
electrically insulated from each other and from electrical ground. Similarly,
the rings must be electrically isolated from each other and their
environment. It is necessary for the streams to break into separate
droplets before reaching the containers. Typically, the containers are
made of metal and the rings are connected to them by wires.
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 The role of charge in electric current and Conservation of electric charge
Electric current is the flow of electric charge through an object.
The relationship between the voltage
The most common charge carriers are the positively charged
(V), resistance (R), and current (I) is
proton and the negatively charged electron. The movement of V=IR; this is known as Ohm's law.
any of these charged particles constitutes an electric current.
The total electric charge of an isolated system remains constant
regardless of changes within the system itself. The conservation of Alternating electric
charge results in the charge-current continuity equation. current flows through
the solenoid,
producing a changing
The conservation of electric charge state that, the rate of change in magnetic field. This
charge density ρ within a volume of integration V is equal to the area field causes an electric
integral over the current density J through the closed surface S = ∂V, current to flow in the
which is in turn equal to the net current I: wire loop by
electromagnetic inducti
on
.

Thus, the conservation of electric charge, as expressed by the continuity equation,

gives the result:

where I is the net outward current through a

closed surface and q is the electric charge
contained within the volume defined by the
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 What is Electric field

is the physical field that surrounds electrically

charged particles and exerts force on all other charged
particles in the field, either attracting or repelling them.
Electric fields originate from electric charges and time-
varying electric currents. Electric fields and magnetic fields
are both manifestations of the electromagnetic field.

The electric field is defined as a vector field that

associates to each point in space the electrostatic (
Coulomb) force per unit of charge exerted on an
infinitesimal positive test charge at rest at that point. The
derived SI unit for the electric field is the volt per meter
(V/m), which is equal to the newton per coulomb (N/C).

The magnitude of the electric field E can be derived from

Coulomb's law. The magnitude of the electric field E
created by a single source point charge Q at a certain
distance from r in vacuum is given by
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 Electric Field cont.
An electric field is a region of space where an electric
charge experiences a force. The direction of the
electric field at any point is the direction of the force Electric fields originate from electric charges and time-
that a positive test charge would feel if placed at that varying electric currents. Electric fields and magnetic
point. The magnitude of the electric field at any point fields are both manifestations of the electromagnetic
is the ratio of the force on a test charge to the field.
magnitude of the test charge. The unit of an electric The electric field is the attractive force holding the
field is newton per coulomb (N/C) or volt per meter atomic nucleus and electrons together in atoms. It is also
(V/m). the force responsible for chemical bonding between
atoms that result in molecules.
where E is the electric field magnitude at a distance r from the point charge Q, and
k is a constant equal to 8.99×109 Nm$ 2$/C$2$. The direction of the electric field is The electric field can be visualized with a set of lines
radial from the point charge. whose direction at each point is the same as the field's, a
The electric field due to a collection of charges can be concept introduced by Michael Faraday.
obtained by vectorially adding the electric fields due Faraday's law describes the relationship between a time-
to each individual charge. varying magnetic field and the electric field, state that
where ∇ is the gradient operator that gives the direction of maximum change of a
scalar function.
the curl of the electric field is equal to the negative time
derivative of the magnetic field.
This implies there are two kinds of electric13fields:
28/01/2024 electrostatic fields and fields arising from time-varying
 What is Electrostatic?
Electrostatics is a branch of physics that studies
electric charges at rest (static electricity).
Electrostatic phenomena arise from the forces that
electric charges exert on each other. Such forces are
described by Coulomb's law.
Coulomb's inverse-square law states the magnitude of
the electrostatic force F between two point charges q1
and q2 is directly proportional to the product of the
magnitudes of charges and inversely proportional to
the square of the distance between them. Like charges
repel each other, and opposite charges attract each
where, ke is a constant, q1 and q2 are the quantities
other.
of each charge, and the scalar r is the distance
It can be calculates as the amount of force between between the charges.
two electrically charged particles at rest which is
called electrostatic force.

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 Electrostatic Charges
The electrostatic charges between two forces f1 and f2 can Vector form
be described inform of scalar and vector.
• The scalar form gives the magnitude of the vector of the

electrostatic force F between two point charges q1 and q2,

but not its direction. If r is the distance between the

charges, the magnitude of the force is

where ε0 is the electric constant. If the product q1q2 is

positive, Note: the vector F1 is the force experienced by q1, and the
However, the force between the two charges is vector F2 is the force experienced by q2. When q1q2 > 0
the forces are repulsive (as in the image) and when
repulsive; if the product is negative, the force
q1q2 < 0 the forces are attractive (opposite to the image).
between them is attractive The magnitude of the forces will always be equal.
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 Simple experiment to verify and proof Coulomb's law

(1)

(2)

(3)

In the equilibrium state, the distance between the charges

So, the Coulomb's law is given as , , then
will be L2 < L1, and the repulsion force between them will
eq. (4) can be be given in Eq. (5):
(4)
(5)

If we now discharge one of the spheres, and we put it in contact

with the charged sphere, each one of them acquires a charge q/2.
since
28/01/2024 Dividing (4) by (5), we get:
 Simple experiment to verify Coulomb's law continuation

(6) Gauss's law described electric fields caused by electric charges.

is a law that relating the distribution of electric charge to the
resulting electric field.
it states that the flux of the electric field out of an arbitrary
to verify that the equality is true taking into account the experimental error.
closed surface is proportional to the electric charge enclosed by
In practice, the angles can be difficult to measure, if the length of the ropes is
sufficient, the angles will be small to make the following approximation as in Eq. the surface, irrespective of how that charge is distributed.
(7) and (8):
The Gauss's law can be stated using either the electric field E or
the electric displacement field D, which can be expressed
(7)
mathematically using vector calculus in integral form and
differential form; both are equivalent since they are related by the
divergence theorem.
(8)
The Gauss's law can be expressed in form of cylindrical
symmetry, planar symmetry, and spherical symmetry
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 Gauss's law

Gauss's law can alternatively be written in the

differential form:
Integral form

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 Mathematical proof to shows that integral and differential forms
of Gauss's law are equivalent

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 Magnetic Field

What is Magnetic Field?

A magnetic field is a region of space where a moving

electric charge or a magnetic material experiences a force. The magnetic field due to a permanent magnet is
The direction of the magnetic field at any point is given by given by the magnetic dipole model:
the right-hand rule: if you point your thumb in the direction
of the current or the north pole of a magnet, your fingers will
curl in the direction of the magnetic field. The magnitude of
the magnetic field at any point is measured by the force on where B is the magnetic field magnitude at a distance r from the magnetic
dipole moment m, and × denotes the cross product. The direction of the
a unit north pole placed at that point. The unit of the magnetic field is perpendicular to both m and r.
magnetic field is the tesla (T) or newton per ampere-meter
(N/A$\cdot$m). However, The magnetic field can also be expressed in
terms of the magnetic vector potential A, which is a vector
A magnetic field can be produced by moving charges or by function that satisfies:
permanent magnets. The magnetic field due to a long
straight current-carrying wire is given by Ampere’s law:
where × denotes the curl operator that gives the rotation of a vector function .

where B is the magnetic field magnitude at a distance r from the wire carrying current I,
and μ0​is a constant equal to 4π×10−7 N/A$^2$. The direction of the magnetic field is 20
tangential to a circle centered on the wire.
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 Electric and Magnetic Flux
What is Magnetic Flux?
What is Electric Flux?
Electric flux is a measure of how much electric field passes
through a given area. It is defined as the dot product of the Magnetic flux is a measure of how much magnetic field
electric field and the area vector: passes through a given area. It is defined as the dot
product of the magnetic field and the area vector:
where ΦE​is the electric flux, E is the electric field, and A is the area vector, which has a
magnitude equal to the area and a direction perpendicular to the surface. The dot product means where ΦB​is the magnetic flux, B is the magnetic field, and A is the area vector, which has
that only the component of the electric field parallel to the area vector contributes to the electric a magnitude equal to the area and a direction perpendicular to the surface. The dot
flux. product means that only the component of the magnetic field parallel to the area vector
contributes to the magnetic flux..
The electric flux can also be calculated by integrating the electric
field over a closed surface: Magnetic flux can also be calculated by integrating the
magnetic field over a closed surface:

where S is the closed surface, and dA is an infinitesimal area element. This integral is known as
Gauss’s law for electricity, which states that the electric flux through any closed surface is
proportional to the net charge enclosed by that surface: where S is the closed surface, and dA is an infinitesimal area element. This integral is
known as Gauss’s law for magnetism, which states that the magnetic flux through any
closed surface is zero: :

where Q is the net charge inside the surface, and ϵ0​is a constant equal to 8.85×10−12 C$ 2$/Nm$2$.
Gauss’s law can be used to calculate the electric field due to symmetric charge distributions, such
as spheres, cylinders, and planes.

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 What is Electromagnetic Induction?
The induced EMF can be increased by:
Electromagnetic induction is the phenomenon of generating
 Increasing the rate of change of flux
an electric current or an electric potential in a conductor due
to a changing magnetic flux. It was discovered by Michael  Increasing the number of turns in the loop
Faraday and Joseph Henry in 1831 independently.  Increasing the strength of the magnetic field
The principle of electromagnetic induction is summarized by The induced EMF can drive a current in a closed
Faraday’s law of induction, which states that the induced circuit, which can power various devices or perform
electromotive force (EMF) in a loop of wire is equal to the work. Some examples of electromagnetic induction
negative rate of change of magnetic flux through the loop: are:
 Generators: convert mechanical energy into electrical energy by rotating
coils of wire in a magnetic field
 Transformers: transfer electrical energy from one circuit to another by varying
where E is the EMF, ΦB​is the magnetic flux, and t is the time. The negative sign indicates that the the current in one coil, which induces an EMF in another coil
induced EMF opposes the change in flux that causes it, according to Lenz’s law.  Induction motors: convert electrical energy into mechanical energy by
creating a rotating magnetic field that induces a torque on a rotor
There are several ways to induce an EMF in a loop of wire,  Induction cooktops: heat up metal pots by creating an oscillating magnetic
such as: field that induces eddy currents and Joule heating in them
 Wireless charging: charge devices without wires by creating an alternating
 Moving a magnet near the loop magnetic field that induces an EMF and a current in a receiver coil
 Moving the loop near a magnet  The area and a direction perpendicular to the surface. The dot product
means that only the component of the magnetic field parallel to the area
 Changing the current in another loop near the first loop vector contributes to the magnetic flux.

 Changing the shape or area of the loop in a magnetic

field
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 How Does an Electric Current
Produce a Magnetic Force?
The result of a magnetic field of the conductor is that it
A current-carrying conductor placed in the magnetic field
will force the magnetic field above the conductor and
will experience a force since the current is nothing but
move it below.
the flow of charges.
So, the field lines are like stretched rubber bands;
So, consider a current-carrying conductor with current
hence they will push the conductor in a downward
flows through it, as shown in the figure below. According
direction, i.e., the force is downward, as shown in
to Fleming’s right-hand rule; this current will produce a
figure (b).
magnetic field in a clockwise direction.

However, this example says that the current-carrying

conductor in a magnetic field experiences a force. The
following equation determines the magnitude of the
magnetic force on a current-carrying conductor.

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 Condition necessary to make Electric
Current flow in a closed circuit?
 A potential difference between the two points must
be exist. If the two points in a circuit are at the same
potential, the current cannot flow.
 A voltage source or current source must be exist,
such as a battery or cell that forces the free electrons
which constitutes an electric current.
 A conductor or wire which carries electric charges
must be available.
Determine current in each circuit diagram below?
 A circuit must be closed or complete. If circuits are
open, the current cannot flow.

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 What is a Transformer? The winding which receives
electrical power from the source is
A transformer is defined as a passive electrical device that known as the ‘primary winding. The
winding which gives the desired
transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another through
output voltage due to
the process of electromagnetic induction. It is most commonly mutual induction is commonly
used to increase (‘step up’) or decrease (‘step down’) voltage known as the ‘secondary winding’.
levels between circuits.
.

The Mutual induction between two or more windings

(also known as coils) allows the electrical energy to be
transferred between circuits.

Discuss the principle of transformer?

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 What is Eddy Current and Theory of
Application?
Eddy currents (I, red) induced in a conductive metal plate (C) as it
Eddy currents are loops of electrical current induced within moves to the right under a magnet (N). The magnetic field (B, green)
conductors by a changing magnetic field in the conductor is directed down through the plate. The Lorentz force of the magnetic
according to Faraday's law of induction. Eddy currents flow field on the electrons in the metal induces a sideways current under
in closed loops within conductors, in planes perpendicular to the magnet. The magnetic field, acting on the sideways moving
electrons, creates a Lorentz force opposite to the velocity of the sheet,
the magnetic field.
which acts as a drag force on the sheet. The blue arrows are counter
For example, a relative motion between a magnet and a nearby magnetic fields generated by the circular motion of the charges.
conductor. The magnitude of the current in a given loop is
proportional to the strength of the magnetic field, the area of the Path of eddy current flow is calculated as;
loop, and the rate of change of flux, and inversely proportional
to the resistivity of the material.
. Power dissipation of eddy currents is given as:

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 Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic
Induction: First & Second Law?
Fleming’s Right Hand Rule states that if we arrange our thumb,
Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction is a basic law of forefinger and middle finger of the right-hand perpendicular to each
electromagnetism predicting how a magnetic field will interact other, then the thumb points towards the direction of the motion of the
with an electric circuit to produce an electromotive force (EMF). conductor relative to the magnetic field, the forefinger points towards
This phenomenon is known as electromagnetic induction. the direction of the magnetic field and the middle finger points towards
the direction of the induced current as shown below.
Faraday’s law states that a current will be induced in a
conductor which is exposed to a changing magnetic field.
Lenz’s law of electromagnetic induction states that the direction
of this induced current will be such that the magnetic field
created by the induced current opposes the initial changing
magnetic field which produced it. The direction of this current
flow can be determined using Fleming’s right-hand rule. Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule?
When a current-carrying conductor is placed in an external magnetic
field, the conductor experiences a force perpendicular to both the field
and the current flow’s direction. Fleming’s left-hand rule is used to find
the direction of the force acting on the current carrying conductor
placed in a magnetic field.

Fleming’s Left Hand Rule states that if we arrange our thumb,

forefinger and middle finger of the left-hand perpendicular to each
other, then the thumb points towards the direction of the force
experienced by the conductor, the forefinger points towards the
direction of the magnetic field and the middle finger points towards the
direction of the electric current.
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 Fleming’s right-hand rule.?
First law: It states that whenever there is a change in magnetic flux
Note that for finding the directions of magnetic field or associated with a coil, EMF is induced in that coil.
current, use the right-hand thumb rule i.e if the fingers of Second law: It states that the magnitude of EMF induced in the coil is
the right hand are placed around the wire so that the thumb directly proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux associated
points in the direction of current flow, then the curling of with that coil.
fingers will show the direction of the magnetic field
Let consider, a magnet is approaching towards a coil. Here we
produced by the wire. consider two instants at time T1 and time T2.

Flux linkage with the coil at time T1 is given as,

Flux linkage with the coil at time T2,

Change in flux linkage can be expressed as,

The rate of change of flux linkage is given as

When we take derivative on right-hand side we will get

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 Lenz's law?

Lenz's law states that: The current induced in a circuit due

to a change in a magnetic field is directed to oppose the
change in flux and to exert a mechanical force which  If magnetic flux Ф linking a coil is decreasing, the flux
opposes the motion. produced by the current in the coil is such, that it will aid
Lenz's law predicts the direction of many effects in the main flux and hence the direction of current is as
electromagnetism, such as the direction of voltage induced shown below.
in an inductor or wire loop by a changing current, or the
drag force of eddy currents exerted on moving objects in a
magnetic field.

Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule?

When a current-carrying conductor is placed in an external magnetic
field, the conductor experiences a force perpendicular to both the field
and the current flow’s direction. Fleming’s left-hand rule is used to find
However, Lenz’s law can be stated as follows: the direction of the force acting on the current carrying conductor
 If the magnetic flux Ф linking a coil increases, the direction of placed in a magnetic field.
current in the coil will be such that it will oppose the increase
in flux and hence the induced current will produce its flux in Fleming’s Left Hand Rule states that if we arrange our thumb,
a direction as shown in the Fleming’s right-hand thumb rule. forefinger and middle finger of the left-hand perpendicular to each
other, then the thumb points towards the direction of the force
experienced by the conductor, the forefinger points towards the
direction of the magnetic field and the middle finger points towards the
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direction of the electric current.
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