Learning Objectives

In this module, you will be able to

• calculate the amount of substances used or produced in a chemical
reaction;
• determine the limiting reactant in a reaction and calculate the
amount of product formed;
• calculate the percent yield of a reaction;
• recognize the energy released and absorbed during a chemical
reaction;
• use the simple collision theory to explain the effects of
concentration, temperature, and particle size on the reaction rate; and
• define catalyst and describe how it affects reaction rate
 There are a lot of changes happening in our
environment.
 These changes can either be physical or chemical
 Physical Change is a change in the physical properties
of a substance without altering its composition and
internal structure.
 Chemical Change is a change which alters the
composition and structure of the substance.
Burning wood is an example of chemical change and
boiling water which turns into steam is an example of
physical change.
 As mentioned, there is a complete modification in the
properties of a substance in a chemical change.
 This means that the properties of the initial material are
completely different from the resulting material.
 Thus, a chemical reaction occurred which resulted in a
chemical change.
 A chemical reaction is represented by a balanced
chemical equation which conforms with the law of
conservation of mass.
STOICHIOMETRY
 Stoichiometry is the quantitative relationships of
reactants and products based on the laws of chemical
combinations.
 Quantities of substances involved in a reaction often
expressed in terms of mass, volume, and moles.
 Mole is a unit that refers to the amount of matter in a
substance.
 It is used as conversion factor in stoichiometric
mathematical equations.
 One mole of a substance is equivalent to its formula or
molecular mass and to 6.02 x particles (Avogadro’s
number.)
 Stoichiometry is applied in different processes such as
manufacturing goods, the production of chemicals, baking,
and other industrial practices.
 Stoichiometry is the quantitative relationships of
reactants and products based on the laws of chemical
combinations.
 Quantities of substances involved in a reaction often
expressed in terms of mass, volume, and moles.
 Mole is a unit that refers to the amount of matter in a
substance.
 It is used as conversion factor in stoichiometric
mathematical equations.
 One mole of a substance is equivalent to its formula or
molecular mass and to 6.02 x particles (Avogadro’s
number.)
Overview of mass-mole-volume relationship
The steps in solving problems involving the mole concept
are as follows:

1. Write the balanced chemical equations.

2. Identify the given and unknown required.
3. If the give is not expressed in mole, convert the
amount of the given to mole using the appropriate
conversion factor.
4. Identify the mole ratio from the balanced equation and
calculate for the unknown value.
 Study the example below.

Example 1: The reaction of ammonia gas to nitrogen

monoxide yields nitrogen gas and water vapor. How many
moles of each reactant will be present if 13.7 moles of
nitrogen gas is produced?
Solution:

Step1: 4 + 6 NO (g) + 6(g)

Step 2: Given: 13.7 moles of
Asked: number of moles of N and NO
Step 3-4: Since the given is expressed in number of moles, there is
no need to convert. The mole ratio is 4 moles of N yields 5 moles
of . This should be written in such a way that similar substances
can be cancelled, leaving only the formula of the unknown. Then,
perform the needed operation to get the value of the unknown as it
is shown below.

(13.7 moles of ) () = 10.96 moles of

(13.7 moles of ) () = 16.44 moles

Step 5: The measured value from the problem contains 3

significant figures, thus the final answers are 11.0 moles of and
16.4 moles of NO.
Limiting and Excess Reactants
 In a chemical reaction, not all constituents will combine
in a 1:1 basis or be completely used up in the reaction.
This means that when the reactants combine, one
constituent limits the reaction and product formation. This
reactant is called a limiting reactant.
Representation of limiting and excess reactants
In identifying limiting reactants, you must use the following
steps:
1. Write the balanced chemical equation for the chemical
reaction.
2. Calculate the available moles of each reactant using a
referenced product.
3. Use the balanced chemical equation to determine the
mole ration of the reactants in the chemical reaction.
4. Compare the available moles of each reactant with the
number of moles required for a complete reaction using
the mole ratio.
5. Label the reactant that yields the smallest mole ratio as
the limiting reactant.
 Example 2: A 2.00 g sample of ammonia is mixed with
4.00 g of oxygen. Which is the limiting reactant?
Solution:
Step 1: Write a balanced chemical reaction.

4 (g) + 5 NO (g) 4 NO (g) + 6O (g)

 Step 2: Identify the amount of starting materials given.
2.00 g and 4.00 g of

Step 3-4: Since both reactants are exposed in grams, use

their molar masses to convert them into mole. Moreover,
the example reaction will produce two products, through
this, we can calculate the amount either of the products. In
this case, let us compute of NO produced since O is a by-
product of the reaction.
 2.00 g ()() = 0.1176 mole of NO

4.00 g of ()() = 0.1 mole of NO

From the starting material 2.00 g of it could generate 0.1176

moles of NO while 4.00g would generate 0.1 mole of NO.
 Step 5: From the computed amount of products, produced
lesser amount of NO compared to , hence, is the limiting
reactant.

Note: The reactant that yields the lesser amount of product is

the limiting reactant. The other reactant is called the excess
reactant. Thus, oxygen gas is the limiting reactant.
PERCENT YIELD
 In stoichiometric calculations, you assume that
reactions are complete or there is a 100% yield supposing
that all conditions are ideal or constant. However, all
chemical reactions will have a yield of less than 100%.
There are different factors to consider, which are as
follows:
1. Reversible reactions may not go to completion.
2. Some products may be lost when they are removed
from the reaction mixture vessel.
3. Some of the reactants may react in an unexpected way.
 Thus, chemists have devised a way to quantify the
extent of the reaction with reference to their experimental
and theoretical results. This is called the percent yield.
The yield of a reaction is the actual mass of product
obtained. The percent yield can be calculated as follows.
 Example 3: The maximum theoretical mass of a
product in a certain reaction is 20 g, but only 15 g is
obtained.

Percent yield = x 100 = 75%

Solution:
The maximum theoretical mass of a product itself
can be calculated using a reacting mass calculation.
HEAT OF REACTION
 A chemical reaction involves not only changes in chemical
properties, but also in the structure of the substance.
 Change in structure involves either bond breakage or bond
formation.
 When this happens, energy is either released or absorbed for the
reaction to proceed.
 The energy needed to break the bonds of reactants in a chemical
reaction must be equal to the energy needed to form the bonds of
the product.
 Since energy is neither created nor destroyed, energy must be
conserved, and the only way to conserve it is by transforming
energy into another form in a reaction.
TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS
BASED ON MOVEMENT OF HEAT
 Chemical reactions can also be classified as
endothermic or exothermic, depending on how the
system interacts with energy.
 An endothermic reaction involves the absorption of
heat by the system from the surroundings.
 Exothermic reaction involves the release of heat by the
system to the surroundings.
The figure below shows that ΔH is positive in an endothermic
reaction as it absorbs the heat coming from the surroundings. This
results in cooler surroundings. An exothermic reaction shows a
negative ΔH as it release heat that makes the surroundings warmer.
Energy diagram for (a) endothermic and (b)
exothermic reactions
Endothermic reaction
In an endothermic reaction, the system must absorb
energy from its surroundings for the reaction to proceed.
Thus, the reactant has a lower compared to the product.

Exothermic reactions
On the other hand, for an exothermic reaction to
happen, the system must release energy to the
surroundings to attain the stability of its product. Thus, the
reactant has higher energy than its product.
 Endothermic and exothermic processes are evident in our daily
lives, as shown in the table below.
Exothermic Processes Endothermic Processes
Mixing sodium sulfite and Baking bread
bleach
Rusting iron Cooking an egg
Burning sugar Producing sugar by
photosynthesis
Forming ion pairs Separating ion pairs
Combining atoms to make a Splitting ion pairs
molecule in the gas phase
 Exothermic Processes Endothermic Processes
Mixing water and strong Mixing water and ammonium
acids nitrate ( )
Mixing water with an Making an anhydrous salt
anhydrous salt from a hydrate
Crystallizing liquid salts (as Melting solid salts
in sodium acetate in chemical
hand warmers)
 Exothermic Processes Endothermic Processes
Nuclear fission Reaction of barium hydroxide
octahydrate (Ba(OH)2 x
8H2O) crystals with dry
ammonium chloride (NH4Cl)
Mixing water with calcium Reaction of thionyl chloride
chloride (CaCl2) (SOCl2) with cobalt (II)
sulfate heptahydrate (CoSO4
x 7 H2O)
COLLISION THEORY
 For a chemical reaction to happen, the reactant particles
must collide with each other.
 But this will only happen if the collision is effective.
 An effective collision occurs if reactants collide with
enough energy and in proper orientation.
 Reactant particles possess kinetic energies but not all of
these particles would have enough kinetic energy that
may cause bond breakage leading to formation of the
products.
 When particles with enough energy collide, they form a
transition state.
 The energy required for a reaction to proceed and reach
its transition is called activation energy.
 Hence, the energy of the reactants should be at least
equal or greater than the activation energy of the reaction
to form the product upon collision.
Enthalpy (∆H) refers to the
amount of heat that is used or
released in the system at
constant pressure.
Energy diagrams of (a)
exothermic reaction and (b)
endothermic reaction
 Exothermic Reaction Endothermic Reaction
It is the chemical reaction It is the chemical reaction
that gives out heat to the that absorbs heat from the
surroundings. surroundings.

The temperature of the The temperature of the

surroundings increases. surroundings decreases.

The total energy of The total energy of

reactants is greater than the reactants is less than the
total energy of energy of total energy of products.
products.
 Exothermic Reaction Endothermic Reaction
Bond formation releases more energy Bond breaking requires more energy
than is required in bond breaking. than the energy that is released
during bond formation.

Examples: Examples:
Combustion of fuel, burning of Thermal decomposition of nitrate or
metal, neutralization, respiration, carbonate salts, reaction of acid with
rusting of iron, reaction of a reactive hydrogen carbonate, photosynthesis,
metal with acid, reaction of alkaline melting, boiling, sublimation,
metals with water, freezing, dissolving, ammonium or potassium
condensation, dissolving alkali or salts in water, and heating of
concentrated acid in water, and hydrated salt.
dissolving anhydrous salts in water
FACTORS AFFECTING
REACTION RATE
There are several factors that affect the reaction rate. These
include temperature, concentration, surface area, and the
presence of a catalyst.

Temperature
One factor that affects reaction rate is temperature. If the
temperature is increased, the following conditions happen:
1. the reactant particles move more quickly;
2. the reactant particles have more kinetic energy;
3. the particles collide more often, and more of the collisions
are successful; and
4. the rate of reaction increases
 When you increase the concentration of a reactant, the
reaction becomes faster.
 As you decrease the concentration of one of the
reactants, the reaction becomes slower,
 This means more particles will have the possibility to
collide with other particles of the other reactants.
 Thus, higher frequency of collision yields a higher
tendency for a faster reaction to occur.
Graph of the effect of concentration of a reactant on
reaction rate
SURFACE AREA
 Another factor that affects the reaction rate is surface
area.
 A substance with a larger surface area would have a
larger space for collision between particles of a reaction.
 A greater number of collisions between particles are
expected in a larger surface area as compared with a
lower surface area/
 Therefore, reaction rate will be faster.
The figure below shows the increase in surface area once the
magnesium splits into smaller buts. This allows hydrogen ions to
easily collide with magnesium atoms.
CATALYST
 The presence of a catalyst is also another factor that can
affect reaction rates.
 The catalyst is a substance introduced in a chemical
reaction that provides an alternative pathway that will
utilize lower activation energy.
 When this happens, the reaction can progress faster and
more smoothly, as compared to an uncatalyzed reaction.
The figure below demonstrates a decrease in activation
energy needed by applying a catalyst. This results to faster
reaction progress compared to an uncatalyzed process.
 There are two types of catalyst: homogenous and heterogenous.
 A homogenous catalyst forms an intermediate state before it proceeds
to the final product.
 After which the catalyst will reform again.
 This is why the reaction profile show to bumps.
 While a homogenous catalyst is in the same phase as the
reactants, the heterogenous catalyst involves the use of a
phase that is different from the reactants.
 For example, if the reactants are in solid phase and the
catalyst is either a liquid or gas, the catalyst in the
reaction is a heterogenous catalyst
Is there any questions?
Thank you for listening!