Biological Psychology

Chapter 2
Anatomy and Research Methods
 Structure of the Vertebrate
Nervous System
• Central nervous system (CNS): the brain and the spinal
cord
• Peripheral nervous system (PNS): connects the brain
and spinal cord to the rest of the body
– Somatic nervous system: controls voluntary muscles &
conveys sensory information to the CNS
– Autonomic nervous system: controls the heart, intestines,
and other organs
The Human Nervous System
Nervous System Organization
Anatomical Directions in the
Nervous System
Anatomical Terms Referring to Directions
Term Definition
Dorsal Toward the back, away from the ventral (stomach) side. The top of the brain is considered
dorsal because it has that position in four-legged animals.

Ventral Toward the stomach, away from the dorsal (back) side

Anterior Toward the front end

Posterior Toward the rear end

Superior Above another part

Inferior Below another part
Lateral Toward the side, away from the midline

Medial Toward the midline, away from the side

Proximal Located close (approximate) to the point of origin or attachment

Distal Located more distant from the point of origin or attachment

Ipsilateral On the same side of the body (e.g., two parts on the left or two on the right)

Contralateral On the opposite side of the body (one on the left and one on the right)

Coronal plane (or frontal plane) A plane that shows brain structures as seen from the front

Sagittal plane A plane that shows brain structures as seen from the side

Horizontal plane (or transverse A plane that shows brain structures as seen from above
plane)
 Terms Referring to Parts of the
Nervous System
Term Definition
Lamina A row or layer of cell bodies separated from other cell bodies by a layer of axons
and dendrites
Column A set of cells perpendicular to the surface of the cortex, with similar properties
Tract A set of axons within the CNS, also known as a projection. If axons extend from
cell bodies in structure A to synapses onto B, we say that the fibers "project" from
A onto B.
Nerve A set of axons in the periphery, either from the CNS to a muscle or gland or from
a sensory organ to the CNS
Nucleus A cluster of neuron cell bodies within the CNS
Ganglion A cluster of neuron cell bodies, usually outside the CNS (as in the sympathetic
nervous system)
Gyrus (pi.: gyri) A protuberance on the surface of the brain
Sulcus (pi.: sulci) A fold or groove that separates one gyrus from another
Fissure A long, deep sulcus
 The Spinal Cord

• Consists of two types of matter

– Grey matter: located in the center of the spinal cord and is
densely packed with cell bodies and dendrites
– White matter: composed mostly of myelinated axons that
carries information from the gray matter to the brain or
other areas of the spinal cord
• Each segment sends sensory information to the brain
and receives motor commands
 The Ventricles

• Four fluid-filled cavities within the brain’s central canal

containing cerebrospinal fluid
• Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF): a clear fluid found in the brain
and spinal cord
– Provides “cushioning” for the brain
– Reservoir of hormones and nutrition for the brain and
spinal cord
 Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)

• Is a fluid that surrounds the brain

• Makes the brain lighter
• Is made from choroid plexus cells found
with the ventricles of the brain.
(Choroid plexus – the highly vascular tissue that
protrudes into the ventricles)
 The Meninges

• Membranes that surround the brain and spinal cord

• Contain pain receptors
– Meningitis—inflammation of the meninges—is painful
– Swollen blood vessels in the meninges are the cause of
migraine headaches
 Meninges

• Is a series of membranes that protect the brain

and spinal cord.
• Three layers
• Dura Mater - Outer layer
(is very thick)
• Arachnoid - Middle layer
Overlies the arachnoid space (CSF)
• Pia mater - Inner layer
Covers the entire brain
 Ventricles
• Are major spaces in the brain
• Are also covered by the meninges
• Contains choroid plexus cells
The Cerebral Ventricles
A Cross-Section Through the Spinal Cord
 The Autonomic Nervous System

• Sends and receives messages to regulate the automatic

behaviors of the body (heart rate, blood pressure,
respiration, digestion, etc.)
• Divided into two subsystems
– The sympathetic nervous system
– The parasympathetic nervous system
 The Sympathetic and
Parasympathetic Nervous Systems
 The Sympathetic Nervous System

• A network of nerves that prepares the organs for

rigorous activity
– Increases heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, and so
on. (“fight or flight” response)
– Composed of ganglia on the left and right of the spinal
cord
 The Parasympathetic Nervous System

• Facilitates vegetative and nonemergency responses

– Decreases functions increased by the sympathetic
nervous system
– Composed of long preganglion axons extending from the
spinal cord and short postganglionic fibers that attach to
the organs themselves
– Dominant during our relaxed states
Major Divisions of the Vertebrate Brain

Area Also Known as Major Structures

Forebrain Prosencephalon (“forward-brain”)

Forebrain Diencephalon (“between-brain”) Thalamus, hypothalamus

Forebrain Telencephalon (“end-brain”) Cerebral cortex, hippocampus, basal ganglia

Tectum, tegmentum, superior colliculus,

Midbrain Mesencephalon (“middle-brain”)
inferior colliculus, substantia nigra

Rhombencephalon
Hindbrain Medulla, pons, cerebellum
(literally/“parallelogram-brain”)
 The Hindbrain

• Consists of the:
– Medulla
– Pons
– Cerebellum
• Located at the posterior portion of the brain
• Hindbrain structures, the midbrain, and other central
structures of the brain combine and make up the brain
stem
The Human Brainstem
 The Hindbrain—The Medulla and
the Cranial Nerves
• The medulla
– Located just above the spinal cord; like an enlarged
extension of the spinal cord
– Responsible for vital reflexes such as breathing, heart
rate, vomiting, salivation, coughing, and sneezing
• The cranial nerves
– Allow the medulla to control sensations from the head,
muscle movements in the head, and many
parasympathetic outputs
Cranial Nerves II Through XII
 The Cranial Nerves
Number and Name Major Functions

I. Olfactory Smell

II. Optic Vision

III. Oculomotor Control of eye movements; pupil constriction

IV. Trochlear Control of eye movements

V. Trigeminal Skin sensations from most of the face; control of jaw muscles for chewing and swallowing

VI. Abducens Control of eye movements

Taste from the anterior two thirds of the tongue; control of facial expressions, crying, salivation, and dilation of the
VII. Facial
head’s blood vessels

VIII. Statoacoustic Hearing; equilibrium

Taste and other sensations from throat and posterior third of the tongue; control of swallowing, salivation, throat
IX. Glossopharyngeal
movements during speech

Sensations from neck and thorax; control of throat, esophagus, and larynx parasympathetic nerves to stomach,
X. Vagus
intestines, and other organs

XI. Accessory Control of neck and shoulder movements

XII. Hypoglossal Control of muscles of the tongue

Cranial nerves III, IV, and VI are coded in red to highlight their similarity: control of eye movements. Cranial
nerves VII, IX, and XII are coded in green to their similarity: taste and control of tongue and throat
movements. Cranial nerve VII has other important functions as well. Nerve X (not highlighted) also
contributes to throat movements, although it is primarily known for other functions.
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• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d4Hym5TekUE
 The Hindbrain—The Pons

• Lies on each side of the medulla (ventral and anterior)

• The term pons is Latin for “bridge”
– Axons from each half of the brain cross to the opposite
side of the spinal cord such that the left hemisphere
controls the muscles of the right side of the body and the
right hemisphere controls the left side
 The Hindbrain—The Cerebellum

• Structure located in the hindbrain with many deep folds

– Helps regulate motor movement, balance, and
coordination
– Also important for shifting attention between auditory and
visual stimuli
 The Midbrain

• Contains the following structures

– Tectum: roof of the midbrain
– Superior colliculus and inferior colliculus: processes
sensory information
– Tegmentum: contains nuclei for cranial nerves and part of
the reticular formation
– Substantia nigra: gives rise to the dopamine-containing
pathway facilitating readiness for movement
Sagittal Section Through the Human Brain
 The Forebrain

• The most anterior and prominent part of the mammalian

brain, with two cerebral hemispheres
– Consists of the outer cortex and subcortical regions
– Outer portion is known as the “cerebral cortex”
– Each side receives sensory information and controls motor
movement from the opposite (contralateral) side of the
body
Views of the Brain
 The Forebrain—The Limbic System

• Consists of a number of other interlinked structures that

form a border around the brainstem
– Includes the olfactory bulb, hypothalamus, hippocampus,
amygdala, and cingulate gyrus of the cerebral cortex
– Associated with motivation emotions, such as eating,
drinking, sexual activity, anxiety, and aggression
The Limbic System
 The Forebrain—Subcortical Regions

• Structures underneath the cortex

– Thalamus: relay station from the sensory organs; main
source of input to the cortex
– Hypothalamus: small area near the base
 Conveys messages to the pituitary gland to alter the release
of hormones
 Associated with behaviors such as eating, drinking, sexual
behavior, and other motivated behaviors
• The thalamus and the hypothalamus together form the
“diencephalon”
 The Amygdala
• It's name is latin for almond which relates to
its shape.
• It helps in storing and classifying emotionally
charged memories.
• It plays a large role in producing our emotions,
especially fear.
• It's been found to trigger responses to strong
emotion such as sweaty palms, freezing,
increased heart-beat/respiration and stress
hormone release.
 Hippocampus
 Location:
 The Hippocampus is tucked out of sight on the medial side of
the temporal lobe
 Its shape resembles that of a 'seahorse'
 Functions:
 Stores and processes memories
 Helps find memories
 Affects emotions
 The hippocampus helps to encode memories, and then helps
to find them when you want to remember something
 Main relay station that determines whether a new memory
should go into long-term storage or be deleted after its short-
term usefulness is over
Information Routes from Thalamus
to Cerebral Cortex
 The Forebrain—The Pituitary Gland
and Basal Ganglia
• Pituitary gland: hormone-producing gland found at the
base of the hypothalamus
• Basal ganglia: comprises the caudate nucleus, the
putamen, and the globus pallidus
– Associated with planning of motor movement, and with
aspects of memory and emotional expression
– Also important for attention, language planning, and other
cognitive functions
The Basal Ganglia
 The Forebrain—The Basal Forebrain

• Composed of several structures that lie on the dorsal

surface of the forebrain
• Contains the nucleus basalis
– Receives input from the hypothalamus and basal ganglia
– Sends axons that release acetylcholine to the cerebral
cortex
– Important in arousal, wakefulness, and attention
Basal Forebrain
 The Forebrain—The Hippocampus

• A large structure located between the thalamus and

cerebral cortex
– Toward the posterior portion of the forebrain
– Critical for certain types of memory, especially memories
for individual events.
 The Cerebral Cortex

• The most prominent part of the mammalian brain

• Consists of the cellular layers on the outer surface of the
cerebral hemispheres
– Divided into two halves
– Joined by two bundles of axons called the corpus
callosum and the anterior commissure
– More highly developed in humans than other species
 Organization of the Cerebral Cortex

• Contains up to six distinct laminae (layers) that are

parallel to the surface of the cortex
• Cells of the cortex are also divided into columns that lie
perpendicular to the laminae
The Six Laminae of the Human
Cerebral Cortex
Columns in the Cerebral Cortex
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tpLLst4-3fw
 The Four Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex

• Occipital lobe
• Parietal lobe
• Temporal lobe
• Frontal lobe
Areas of the Human Cerebral Cortex
 The Occipital Lobe

• Located at the posterior end of the cortex

• Known as the striate cortex or the primary visual cortex
• Highly responsible for visual input
– Damage can result in cortical blindness
 The Parietal Lobe (1 of 2)

• Contains the postcentral gyrus (“primary somatosensory

cortex”)
– Primary target for touch sensations and information from
muscle-stretch receptors and joint receptors
• Also responsible for processing and integrating
information about eye, head, and body positions from
information sent from muscles and joints
 The Parietal Lobe (2 of 2)

• Essential for spatial information as well as numerical

information
– Example: using one’s fingers to count represents an
overlap of spatial and numerical tasks
Approximate Representation of Sensory
and Motor Information in the Cortex
 The Temporal Lobe

• Located on the lateral portion of each hemisphere near

the temples
– Target for auditory information and essential for
processing spoken language
• Also responsible for complex aspects of vision, including
movement and some emotional and motivational
behaviors
– Klüver-Bucy syndrome associated with temporal lobe
damage
 The Frontal Lobe

• Contains the prefrontal cortex and the precentral gyrus

– Precentral gyrus: also known as the primary motor cortex;
responsible for the control of fine motor movement
– Prefrontal cortex: the integration center for all sensory
information and other areas of the cortex (most anterior
portion of the frontal lobe)
Species Differences in Prefrontal Cortex
 The Prefrontal Cortex

• Responsible for:
– Higher functions such as abstract thinking and planning
– Our ability to remember recent events and information
(“working memory”)
• People with damage to the prefrontal cortex exhibit
delayed-response task
– Respond to something they see or hear after a delay
 Prefrontal Lobotomy

• Surgical disconnection of the prefrontal cortex from the

rest of the brain
– In the 1940s and 1950s, about 40,000 performed
– Mostly, schizophrenics, but later others with less severe
mental illness
– Patients left with apathy, lack of ability to plan, memory
disorders and lack of emotional expression
Results of a Prefrontal Lobotomy
• Nervous System
• CSF
• Meninges
• Anatomy positions
• Divisions of the brain : forebrain . Midbrain , hindbrain
• Frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe, temporal lobe
• Limbic system
• Medulla , Pons, Cerebellum

• Tectum, Tegmentum, Inferior colliculus, Superior

colliculus,

• Cerebrum, basal ganglia, hippocampus, pituitary gland,

hypothalamus, Thalamus, amyglada

• Nucleus accumbens, reticular formation , broca’s area,

Wernicke’s area , pineal gland, cerebral cortex
 How Do the Parts Work Together?

• Parts of the cerebral cortex do not work independently of

each other
– All areas of the brain communicate with each other, but no
single central processor exists that puts it all together
 The Binding Problem

• Refers to how the visual, auditory, and other areas of the

brain produce a perception of a single object
– Perhaps the brain binds activity in different areas when
they produce synchronous waves of activity
– For binding to occur:
 A person perceives two sensations as happening at the
same time and in the same place
 Example: a ventriloquist uses the visual stimulus to alter the
response of the auditory cortex
Where Am I?
An Illusion to Demonstrate Binding
 Research Methods

• The main categories of research methods to study the

brain include those that attempt to:
– Examine the effects of brain damage
– Examine the effects of stimulating a brain area
– Record brain activity during behavior
– Correlate brain anatomy with behavior
 Effects of Brain Damage

• Brain damage can produce an inability to recognize

faces, an inability to perceive motion, changes in
emotional responses, and many more effects
– Ablation: removal of a brain area
– Lesion: damage to a brain area, often done for research
– Stereotaxic instrument: used to damage structures in the
interior of the brain
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hCFtl4npukU
A Stereotaxic Instrument
 Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)

• Application of an intense magnetic field to a portion of

the scalp to temporarily deactivate neurons below the
magnet
– Allows researchers to study behavior with a brain area
active, then inactive, then active again
Apparatus for Magnetic Stimulation
of a Human Brain
 Effects of Brain Stimulation

• Stimulation of a brain area should increase behavior

• Optogenetics: a technique that allows researchers to
turn on activity in targeted neurons by a device that
shines a laser within the brain
– Electrodes can probe the brain of a person undergoing
brain surgery
– A limitation is that complex behaviors depend on temporal
pattern of activity in many areas
 Recording Brain Activity – EEG

• Electroencephalograph (EEG): records electrical activity

produced by various brain regions
– Can produce evoked potentials that self-reports
sometimes do not reveal
Electroencephalography
 Recording Brain Activity—MEG and PET

• Magnetoencephalograph (MEG): similar to EEG but

measures faint magnetic fields generated by brain
activity instead
• Positron-emission tomography (PET): records emission
of radioactivity from injected radioactive chemicals to
produce a high-resolution image
A Result of Magnetoencephalography
A PET Scanner
 Recording Brain Activity—fMRI

• Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI): modified

version of an MRI that uses oxygen consumption in the
brain to provide a moving and detailed picture
– Safer and less expensive than PET
– Comparison tasks are used to compare the brain pictures
while person is engaged in different activities and
recordings can allow researchers to predict the behavior
An fMRI Scan of a Human Brain
Subtraction for a Brain Scan Procedure
Correlating Brain Anatomy with Behavior—
Phrenology
• The process of relating skull anatomy to behavior
– One of the first ways used to study the brain
– Yielded few, if any, accurate results
A Phrenologist’s Map of the Brain
Correlating Brain Anatomy with Behavior—
Modern Methods
• Identify peculiar behaviors and look for abnormal brain
structures or function
– These abnormal brain structures can be identified using:
 Computerized axial tomography (CAT scan)
 Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
Correlating Brain Anatomy with Behavior—
CAT and MRI
• Computerized axial tomography (CAT scan): inject dye
into the blood and a pass X-rays through the head
– Rotate scanner slowly until a measurement has been
taken at each angle and a computer constructs the image
– Used to identify tumors and abnormalities
• Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI): apply a powerful
magnetic field to image the brain
CT Scanner
 Methods of Studying Brain-Behavior
Relationships (1 of 2)
Examine Effects of Brain Damage
Used with humans; each person has different
Study victims of stroke, etc.
damage
Lesion Controlled damage in laboratory animals
Ablation Removal of a brain area
Gene knockout Affects wherever that gene is active (e.g., a receptor)
Intense application temporarily inactivates a brain
Transcranial magnetic stimulation
area

Examine Effects of Stimulating a Brain Area

Invasive; used with laboratory animals, seldom with

Stimulating electrodes
humans
Transcranial magnetic stimulation Brief, mild application activates underlying brain area
Record Brain Activity during Behavior
Invasive; used with laboratory animals, seldom
Record from electrodes in brain
humans
 Methods of Studying Brain-Behavior
Relationships (2 of 2)
Examine Effects of Brain Damage

Records from scalp; measures changes by milliseconds, but

Electroencephalograph (EEG)
with low resolution of location of the signal

Evoked potentials Similar to EEG but in response to stimuli

Magnetoencephalograph (MEG) Similar to EEG but measures magnetic fields

Measures changes over both time and location but requires

Positron emission tomography (PET)
exposing brain to radiation

Functional magnetic resonance Measures changes over about 1 second, identifies location
imaging (fMRI) within 1 to 2 mm, no use of radiation

Correlate Brain Anatomy with

Behavior
Computerized axial tomography
Maps brain areas, but requires exposure to X-rays
(CAT)
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) Maps brain areas in detail, using magnetic fields