System Tracts

3. System Tracts
Introduction
System Tracts
Lowstand system tract
 Definition and stacking patterns
 Economic potential
Transgressive system tract
 Definition and Stacking Patterns
 Economic Potential
Highstand system tract
 Definition and stacking patterns
 Economic potential
Shelf Margin system tract
 Definition and stacking patterns
 Introduction
• The concept of systems tract was introduced to define a linkage of
contemporaneous depositional systems, forming the subdivision of a
sequence (Brown and Fisher, 1977).

• Systems tracts are interpreted based on

 Stratal stacking patterns,
 Position within the sequence and
 Types of bounding surfaces, and are assigned particular positions along an
inferred curve of base-level changes at the shoreline.

• Systems tracts are ‘genetic stratigraphic units (Galloway 2004) (Fig. 3.1).

• Each systems tract is defined by a specific type of stratal stacking pattern,

closely associated with a type of shoreline shift (i.e., forced regression,
normal regression, or transgression), and represents ‘a specific sedimentary
response to the interaction between
 Sediment flux,
 Physiography,
 Environmental energy, and
Figure 3.1 Showing the depositional hierarchy of the main system tracts.
FIGURE 1.7 Timing of system tracts and sequence boundaries for the sequence models currently
in use (modified from Catuneanu, 2002). Abbreviations: LST—lowstand systems tract; TST—
transgressive systems tract; HST—highstand systems tract; FSST—falling-stage systems tract;
RST—regressive systems tract; T–R—transgressive-regressive.
• The early Exxon sequence model accounts for the subdivision of
depositional sequences into four component systems tracts, as first
presented by Vail (1987) and subsequently elaborated by Posamentier and
Vail (1988) and Posamentier et al. (1988).
• These are the
 Lowstand
 Transgressive
 Highstand
 Shelfmargin systems tracts.

• These systems tracts were first defined relative to a curve of eustatic

fluctuations (Posamentier et al., 1988; Posamentier and Vail, 1988), which
was subsequently replaced with a curve of relative sea-level (base-level)
changes (Hunt and Tucker, 1992; Posamentier and James, 1993).

• The lowstand and the shelf-margin system tracts are similar concepts, as
being both related to the same portion of the reference sea-level curve (the
stage of fall-early rise), so they were used interchangeably as part of a
depositional sequence (Vail, 1987; Posamentier and Vail, 1988; Vail et al.,
1991).
• A sequence composed of lowstand, transgressive and highstand system
tracts was defined as a ‘type-1’ sequence,
• Whereas a combination of shelf-margin, transgressive and highstand
systems tracts was said to have formed a ‘type-2’ sequence (Posamentier
Figure 3.2 Regional
architecture of depositional
systems, systems tracts, and
stratigraphic surfaces (modified
from Catuneanu, 2002). The
systems tract nomenclature
follows the scheme of Hunt and
Tucker (1992). Systems tracts
are defined by stratal stacking
patterns and bounding surfaces,
with an inferred timing relative
to the base-level curve at the
shoreline. Note that on seismic
lines, downlapping clinoforms
are concave-up, whereas
transgressive ‘healing phase’
strata associated with coastal
and marine onlap tend to be
convex-u. Abbreviations: e-FR—
early forced regression; l-FR—
late forced regression; e-T—
early transgression; l-T—late
transgression.
3.2 System Tracts

Lowstand system tract

Transgressive system tract
Highstand system tract
Shelf Margin system tract
 Lowstand system tract
Definition and stacking patterns
• The lowstand systems tract, when defined as restricted to all
sedimentary deposits accumulated during the stage of early-
rise normal regression (sensu Hunt and Tucker, 1992), is
bounded by the subaerial unconformity and its marine
correlative conformity at the base (Type-1 Sequence
Boundary), and by the maximum regressive surface at the top
(Transgressive Surface) (Figs. 3.2).

• Where the continental shelf is still partly submerged at the

onset of base-level rise, following forced regression, the basal
composite boundary of the lowstand systems tract may also
include the youngest portion of the regressive surface of
marine erosion (Fig. 2.12).
Figure 3.5 Showing base level fall below the shelf edge/shelf margin/offlap break
forming type-1 sequence boundary
 Time transgressive surface

Figure 3.3 Wave-dominated shallow-marine succession showing the transition between

gradationally based (A) and sharp-based (B) upper shoreface forced regressive facies (Blackhawk
Formation, Utah). The dashed line represents the inferred basal surface of forced regression
(preserved onset-of-fall paleo-seafloor), and the solid line marks the regressive surface of marine
erosion which separates upper shoreface sands (above) from inner shelf interbedded sands and
muds (below). The direction of progradation is from left to right.
• Consequently, depositional processes and stacking
patterns are dominated by low-rate aggradation and
progradation across the entire sedimentary basin.

• As accommodation is made available by the rising

base level, this ‘lowstand wedge’ is generally expected
to include the entire suite of depositional systems,
from fluvial to coastal, shallow-marine and deep
marine (Fig. 4.5).

• Sediment mass balance calculations indicate, however,

that the grading trends observed within shallow-
marine successions do not correlate with the grading
trends that characterize the age equivalent deep-
• As a result, the lowstand sediments of the basin-floor
submarine fan complex are overall finer grained relative to the
underlying late forced regressive deposits.

• The maximum grain size of the sediment transported by gravity

flows during the lowstand normal regression is also expected to
decrease with time, due to the gradual lowering in fluvial slope
gradients and related competence following the onset of base-
level rise.

• The increase with time in the rate of base-level rise also

contributes to the overall fining-upward fluvial profile, as it
creates more accommodation for floodplain deposition and
increases the ratio between floodplain and channel
sedimentation.
• Figure 3.4 Subaerial unconformity (red line) on a dip-oriented, 2-D seismic transect (location shown on the 3-D illuminated
surface) (De Soto Canyon area, Gulf of Mexico; image courtesy of H.W. Posamentier). Red arrows indicate truncation of
underlying forced regressive shallow-marine strata. The deep-water forced regressive deposits downlap the prograding
continental slope (yellow arrows). Thinner yellow lines provide a sense of the overall stratal stacking patterns. Note that the
subaerial unconformity is associated with offlap, decrease in elevation in a basinward direction, and irregular topographic relief
(differential erosion). The basinward termination of the subaerial unconformity indicates the shoreline position at the end of
forced regression. The subaerial unconformity is onlapped (fluvial onlap; green arrow) and overlain by a topset of lowstand
normal regressive strata. The white arrow indicates the shoreline trajectory during the subsequent lowstand normal
regression. For scale, the channel on the 3-D illuminated surface is approximately 1.8 km wide, and 275 m deep at shelf edge.
The illuminated surface is taken at the base of forced regressive deposits. Abbreviations: FR–forced regressive deposits;
NR–normal regressive deposits.
 Economic potential
• Petroleum plays
• Rising base level during the lowstand normal regression
provides accommodation across the entire basin, from fluvial to
marine environments.
• Sediment budget observations indicate a concentration of the
coarsest river-borne sediment within fluvial and coastal
depositional systems, which arguably form the best reservoirs,
with the highest sand/mud ratio, of the lowstand systems tract.
• The trapping of sand within aggrading fluvial to shallow-marine
systems following the onset of base-level rise results in a net
decrease in the volume of sediment available for deep-water
gravity flows, and also in a lowering of the sand/mud ratio in
submarine fans.
• Shelf-edge deltas and correlative strandplains continue to
prograde the upper slope, with the development of a topset in
response to coastal aggradation (Fig. 3.2).
• Equally good reservoirs may form in coastal,
shallow-water and deep-water environments
during the lowstand normal regression of the
shoreline.
• The change in the type of dominant gravity
flows that manifest during the lowstand time,
from high-density turbidity currents at the end
of base-level fall/onset of base-level rise to low-
density turbidity currents, has important
consequences for the lithology, morphology
and location of deep-water reservoirs within the
basin (Figs. 4.4 and 4.5).
• The main risks for the exploration of lowstand
reservoirs relate to charge, seals, and source
rocks, especially toward the basin margins.
 Coal Resources
• The lowstand systems tract is defined by high
sediment supply in an overall low
accommodation setting, and therefore
environmental conditions are generally
unfavourable for peat accumulation (Fig. 2.7).

• As the rates of base-level rise increase with

time during the lowstand stage, gradually more
accommodation becomes available to the
overbank environment, and so chances of peat
accumulation and subsequent coal
development tend to improve toward the top of
the lowstand systems tract (Fig. 3.6).
 Transgressive system tract
Definition and stacking patterns
• The transgressive systems tract is bounded by the maximum regressive
surface (transgressive surface) at the base, and by the maximum flooding
surface at the top.
• This systems tract forms during the stage of base-level rise when the rates
of rise outpace the sedimentation rates at the shoreline (Fig. 2.5).
• It can be recognized by its overall fining-upward profiles within both
marine and nonmarine successions.
• As the rates of creation of accommodation are highest during shoreline
transgression (Fig. 2.5).
• The transgressive systems tract is commonly expected to include the entire
range of depositional systems along the dip of a sedimentary basin, from
fluvial to coastal, shallow-marine and deep-marine (Fig. 3.2).
• As a result, the transgressive systems tract tends to be composed of two
distinct wedges separated by an area of non-deposition around the shelf
edge;
 One on the continental shelf consisting of fluvial to shallow-marine
deposits.
 One in the deep-water setting consisting of gravity flow deposits and
pelagic sediments (Figs. 2.19 and 3.2).
• Figure 3.6 Note that the transgressive systems tract may
consist of two distinct wedges, one on the continental shelf and
one in the deep-water environment, separated by an area of
sediment bypass or erosion around the shelf edge.
• Both these wedges shift toward the basin margin during
transgression, following the general retrogradational trend, by
onlapping the landscape and the seascape, respectively, in a
landward direction.

• Within the deep-water portion of the basin, the transgressive

deposits are often seen onlapping the continental slope,
forming a transgressive slope apron associated with marine
onlap (Galloway, 1989; Figs. 2.4, 2.19 and 3.2).

• Coastal onlap is also an important type of stratal termination,

diagnostic for transgression, forming within the continental
shelf based transgressive wedge by the shift of shoreface facies
on top of the landward-expanding wave-ravinement surface
(Figs. 2.4, 2.19 and 3.2).

• The fluvial portion of the transgressive systems tract commonly

shows evidence of tidal influences (Shanley et al., 1992;
Shanley and McCabe, 1993), and is characterized by an overall
fining-upward vertical profile.
• As accommodation is generated rapidly during transgression,
and the water table rises in parallel with the base level, the
fluvial portion of the transgressive systems tract often includes
well developed coal seams (Fig. 2.20).

• The transgressive fluvial deposits may form a significant portion

of incised-valley fills, or may aggrade in the inter-fluve areas of
former incised valleys.

• Where incised valleys are inherited from previous stages of

base-level fall and are not entirely filled by lowstand deposits,
their down-stream portions are commonly converted into
estuaries at the onset of transgression (Dalrymple et al., 1994).

• Where not reworked by the tidal-ravinement surface, the

contact between lowstand fluvial and the earliest
(stratigraphically lowest) overlying estuarine facies is
represented by the maximum regressive surface (T.S).
• In this setting, the maximum regressive surface (T.S) is relatively easy to map
in outcrop or core, at the abrupt change from coarse fluvial sand and
gravel (lowstand deposits) to the overlying estuarine facies comprising finer-
grained and more varied lithologies with abundant tidal structures such as
clay drapes and flasers.

• This contrast between lowstand fluvial and overlying transgressive estuarine

facies may also be strong enough to be seen in well logs, at the contact
between ‘clean’ and blocky sand and the younger, more interbedded and
finer-grained lithologies (Fig. 2.15).

• The formation and preservation of transgressive coastal deposits depends on

the rates of
 Base-level rise,
 Sediment supply,
 The wind regime and
 The amount of associated wave-ravinement erosion, and
 The topographic gradients at the shoreline.
• Under restricted detrital supply conditions, the shallow-marine portion of the
transgressive systems tract may also be represented by carbonate
condensed sections (Fig. 2.20).

• The overall thickness of the shallow-water portion of the transgressive

systems tract decreases toward the shelf edge, where transgressive deposits
 Economic potential
Petroleum plays
• On the continental shelf, likely close to the shelf edge, the best reservoirs
are concentrated along the coastline, being represented by back-stepping
beaches (open shoreline settings), estuary-mouth complexes, retrograding
bayhead deltas or even prograding deltas (river-mouth settings).

• Landward from the shoreline, the potential for petroleum exploration of the
transgressive systems tract is generally moderate to poor because of the
extensive development of fine-grained floodplain facies in response to the
rapid rates of base-level rise.

• In addition to coastal facies, shelf-sand deposits and deep-water turbidites

may also make good prospects for petroleum exploration.
• The main contribution, however, of the transgressive systems tract to the
development of petroleum systems within a sedimentary basin is the
accumulation of source rocks and seal facies, within most transgressive
depositional environments.

• Transgressive shallow-marine shales, for example, usually form regionally

extensive covers across continental shelves, which may serve as reference
units for stratigraphic correlation that can be easily identified on 2-D seismic
• Figure 3.7 seismic lines showing a Pliocene to recent succession
accumulated within the tectonic setting of a continental shelf (image
courtesy of PEMEX). The seismic facies are calibrated with a gamma ray log.
Note the regionally extensive transgressive shale that can be mapped on the
seismic line as a ‘transparent’ facies. This transgressive shale forms a
stratigraphic marker that can be used for regional correlation, and it is
bounded by a flooding surface at the base and by a maximum flooding
surface at the top. The maximum flooding surface is overlain by regressive
(highstand) deposits. Abbreviations: T-transgressive shale; F-faults; FS-
flooding surface; MFS-maximum flooding surface.
 Coal resources
• The transgressive systems tract is arguably the best
portion of a stratigraphic sequence for coal
exploration.

• The time of end-of-shoreline transgression marks the

peak for peat accumulation and subsequent coal
development because the water table is at its highest
level relative to the landscape profile, following a time
characterized by a high accommodation to sediment
supply ratio during the transgression of the shoreline
(Fig. 2.6).

• Assuming that all favorable conditions are fulfilled, the

best developed coal seams are expected to overlap
with the maximum flooding surface (Hamilton and
Tadros, 1994; Fig. 2.6).
 Highstand system tract
Definition and stacking patterns
• The highstand systems tract, defined as, “forms during the
late stage of base-level rise, when the rates of rise drop below
the sedimentation rates, generating a normal regression of
the shoreline (Figs. 2.5)”.

• Consequently, depositional trends and stacking patterns are

dominated by a combination of transgression, aggradation
and progradation processes (Fig. 3.2).

• The highstand systems tract is bounded by the maximum

flooding surface (MFS) at the base, and by a composite
surface (Type-1/Type-2 S.B) at the top that includes a portion
of the subaerial unconformity (SB-1 or SB-2).
Figure 3.8 Highstand systems tract
• Nevertheless, the bulk of the ‘highstand prism’ consists of fluvial, coastal, and
shoreface deposits, located relatively close to the basin margin.

• Highstand deltas are generally far from the shelf edge, as they form subsequent to the
maximum transgression of the continental shelf, and develop diagnostic topset
packages of aggrading and prograding delta plain and alluvial plain strata.

• There are three main phases of the highstand system tract formation;
 In the early phase of the highstand, there is an effect of the transgressive system tract and
reterogradation is still in process and build finning upward sequence.
 The second phase of the highstand stage is defined by relatively high rates of base-level rise,
although lower than the sedimentation rates, which results in a stacking pattern with a strong
aggradational component. Consequently, the ratio between floodplain and channel fill
architectural elements also tends to be high.
 In contrast, the late phase of the highstand stage is defined by much lower rates of base
level rise, which result in a stacking pattern with a stronger progradational component, and
hence it is prone to an increase in channel clustering and implicitly in the ratio between
channel fill and floodplain architectural elements.
• Progradation therefore accelerates with time during the highstand stage, in parallel with
the decrease in the rates of base-level rise and the corresponding decrease in the rates
of creation of fluvial and marine accommodation.

• The vertical profile of the fluvial highstand deposits may therefore be described as
fining-upward, if one plots the maximum grain size observed within channel fills, even
though the net amount of sand tends to increase up section.

• The fining-upward trend is even more evident in most preserved stratigraphic sections,
as the amalgamated channels at the top of the highstand systems tract are usually
• The shallow-marine portion of the highstand systems tract
displays a coarsening-upward profile related to the basinward
shift of facies, and includes low-rate prograding and aggrading
normal regressive strata.

• In the case of a continuous regression, the shallow-marine

portion of the highstand systems tract consists of a single
upward coarsening facies succession (‘parasequence’) that
downlaps the maximum flooding surface.

• In the case of the more complex pattern of highstand

regression, the shallow-marine portion of the highstand
systems tract includes a succession of stacked prograding lobes
(‘parasequences’), in which each lobe extends farther seaward
relative to the previous one.

• This shallow marine architecture is often referred to as a

forestepping, or seaward-stepping pattern of basin fill.
 Economic potential
• Petroleum plays
• The best potential reservoirs of the highstand stage tend to be associated with the shoreline
to shoreface depositional systems, which concentrate the largest amounts of sand, with the
highest sand/mud ratio.

• Both strand-plains (open shorelines) and deltas (river-mouth settings) prograde and
downlap the maximum flooding surface, which marks the lower boundary of the highstand
normal regressive package.
• At the top, the highstand reservoirs may be truncated by the subaerial unconformity.

• The sand/mud ratio and the reservoir connectivity within the fluvial systems tend to improve
upwards, as the decreasing rates of base-level rise during the highstand normal regression
lead to an increase in the degree of channel amalgamation.

• No significant reservoirs are expected to develop during this stage in the shelf and deeper-
marine settings.

• The down-side of the increased degree of fluvial to shallow-marine sand amalgamation and
connectivity toward the top of the highstand systems tract is the corresponding poorer
representation of source and seal rocks.

• It can be concluded that the petroleum play significance of the highstand systems tract
consists in the accumulation of reservoir facies mainly within proximal regions (fluvial to
coastal and shoreface environments) and of source and seal facies mainly within the distal
areas of the basin (shallow- to deep-water environments).
• Coal resources
• Coal exploration is restricted to the nonmarine portion of the basin, where
the thickest and most regionally extensive coal seams are generally related
to episodes of highest water table relative to the landscape profile.

• Providing that all favorable conditions required for peat accumulation are
met, which involve the interplay of subsidence, vegetation growth and
sediment supply, these most significant coal seams tend to be associated
with maximum flooding surfaces (Hamilton and Tadros, 1994), hence
marking the base of the highstand systems tract (Fig. 2.7).

• The lower portion of the highstand systems tract, defined by a

predominantly aggradational sedimentation pattern, may still include well-
developed coal seams interbedded with overbank fluvial facies, above the
tidally-influenced transgressive fluvial channel fills.

• The upper portion of the highstand systems tract commonly lacks coal
deposits due to insufficient accommodation and the relatively high sediment
input that results in the amalgamation of meander belts.
 Shelf margin system tract
• Definition and stacking patterns
• A system tract deposited during a time of less-pronounced relative sea
level fall (i.e. the rate of eustatic fall is slightly less than or equal to the
rate of basin subsidence).
• Such that the shelf becomes partially exposed, but the shoreline does not
extend seaward all the way to the offlap break (Fig. 2.10).

• Resulting deposit is called a shelf margin system tract which consists of

prograding topsets and clinoforms.

• It becomes aggradational, and finely retrogradatinonal upward (with time).

• The type-2 sequence boundary is recognized by a downward shift in coastal

onlap, but it does not shift beyond the offlap break (Fig. 2.10).

• The shelf margin system tract is recognized most readily on seismic lines
and is very difficult if not impossible, to detect from outcrops, cores and
logs.
Figure 2.10 Showing the base level fall but not below the shelf edge forming type-2
sequence boundary.
Adelie Penguins Taking a Dive