Addis Ababa University

College of Social Sciences

Department of Geography and Environmental
Studies

Geography of Ethiopia and the Horn

GeES 1011

By: Goitom Abraha (PhD)

 CHAPTER FIVE
THE CLIMATE OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN
Introduction
• Ethiopia is Large country characterized by a wide variety of
altitudinal ranges and diverse climatic conditions.
• Significant temporal and spatial variations in elements of weather
and climate.
• Weather - instantaneous or current state of the atmosphere
composing temperature, atmospheric pressure, humidity, wind
speed and direction, cloudiness and precipitation.
• Hotness or coldness, rainy or cloudiness, sunniness, windiness or
calmness on the daily base are expressions of weather.
• Climate refers the state of the atmosphere over long time periods,
decades and more.
• Ethiopian climate is mainly controlled by the seasonal migration of
Inter tropical Convergence Zone ( ITCZ) and topography of the
country.
 Elements and Controls of Weather and Climate
• When we say weather and climate of Ethiopia, we mean the
temperature, rainfall, air pressure, humidity etc. These are
called elements of weather and climate.
• The elements of weather and climate are not uniformly
distributed in Ethiopia. This is because of the combined
effects of different factors known as controls of weather and
climate.
• The controls of weather and climate include distance from the
sea, altitude, ocean currents, planetary winds, latitude and
mountain barriers.
Elements and Controls of Weather and Climate…Cont’d
 Elements and Controls of Weather and Climate…Cont’d
• The climate of any place is determined by a combination of many
interacting factors such as latitude, elevation, nearby water, ocean
currents, topography, vegetation, and prevailing winds.
• Moreover, the global climate system and any changes that occur
within it also influence local climate.
• Latitude is the distance of a location from the equator. The angle of
the sun around equator is higher and as one moves further away
from the equator towards the poles, less solar insolation is received
during the year and the temperature become colder.
•Latitudinal location of Ethiopia and the Horn resulted in:
• high average temperatures,
• high daily ranges of temperature
• small annual ranges of temperature,
• no significant variation in length of day and night between summer
and winter.
 Inclination of the Earth's Axis
• The earth’s rotation axis makes an angle of about 66 ½ ° with the
plane of its orbit around the sun, or about 23 ½ ° from the
perpendicular to the ecliptic plane.
• Inclination of the axis determines the location of the Tropics of
Cancer & Capricorn and the Arctic &Antarctic Circles.
Inclination of the Earth's Axis....Cont’d
 Inclination of the Earth's Axis....Cont’d
• The natural rotation of Earth around the sun forms the basis for the
astronomical calendar, in which we define seasons with two solstices
and two equinoxes.
• Earth’s tilt and the sun’s alignment over the equator determine both
the solstices and equinoxes.
• Because Earth actually travels around the sun in 365 days.
• Additionally, the elliptical shape of Earth’s orbit around the sun
causes the lengths of day and night.
• The equinoxes mark the times when the sun passes directly above
the equator. The vernal or spring equinox on or around March 21,
and the autumnal equinox on or around September 22.
• On the other hand, In the Northern Hemisphere, the summer
solstice falls on or around June 21, and in the Southern Hemisphere
the winter solstice on or around December 22.
 Inclination of the Earth's Axis....Cont’d
• Keep in mind that the Earth's axis points to the same position in
space (toward the North Star, Polaris).
• As the earth revolves around the sun, the inclination and constant
position (parallelism) of the axis produces a change in the directness
of the sun's rays; and differences in length of day and seasons.
• Equinox is the instant of time when the sun strikes the plane of the
Earth's equator; and where the length of day and night are equal.
Equinox appears twice a year.
• The Vernal (spring) equinox: is the day when the point of verticality
of sun’s rays crosses the equator northwards.
• During this period, the length of day and night are equal.
• March 21 marks the offset of the vernal equinox.
• The Autumn equinox: It appears when vertical sun’s rays moves
southwards on 23rd of September.
 Inclination of the Earth's Axis....Cont’d
• Solstice is an event when the overhead sun is at its northern or
southern extreme points resulting in unequal length of days and
nights in the hemispheres.
• The summer Solstice: on June 21st, the northern hemisphere
has maximum tilt towards the sun experiencing longest daylight
of the year. It is also known as June Solstice.
• The sun is at its highest position in the noonday sky, directly
above 23 ½ in the Tropic of Cancer.
• The winter solstice: 22nd of December is the day when the
maximum southward inclination is attained in the Southern
Hemisphere. It is also known as December Solstice.
• In the Northern Hemisphere, it occurs when the sun is directly
over the Tropic of Capricorn, which is located at 23 ½ ° south of
the equator.
 Inclination of the Earth's Axis....Cont’d
• Equinox vs. Solstice

• Spring Equinox(March 21), Autumn Equinox(September 23), Summer

Solstice(June 21), Winter Solstice( December, 21)
Inclination of the Earth's Axis....Cont’d
 Altitude
• Altitude refers to the height of location above the sea level.
• Under normal conditions there is a general decrease in
temperature with increasing elevation in the troposphere.
• The average rate at which temperature changes per unit of
altitudinal change is known as lapse rate.
 atmospheric heat is received directly from the earth's surface
and indirectly from the sun.
 The lower layer has high density as it contains more water
vapor and dust, which causes it to be a more efficient
absorber of earth radiation than is the thinner, drier, cleaner
air aloft.
• The normal/Environmental /atmospheric lapse rate is 6.5°C
change per kilometer ascent/descent in altitude(if there is no
temperature inversion).
Altitude
 Dry adiabatic laps rate
• Refers to the temperature changes occurring in the rising or
subsiding air mass;
• Occurs not as a result of additions of heat to, or withdrawals
of heat from outside sources, but because of internal
processes of expansion and contraction associated with a
change in altitude.
• When air rises, it expands because there is less weight of air
upon it.
• More precisely, if the upward movement of air does not
produce condensation, then the energy expended by
expansion will cause the temperature of the mass to fall at
the constant dry adiabatic lapse rate.
• The rate of heating or cooling is about 10°C for every 1000 m
of change in elevation.
 Wet Adiabatic laps rate
• The rate at which rising or sinking saturated air changes its
temperature is less than the dry adiabatic rate due to the latent
heat in the water vapor carried by the air.
• Prolonged cooling of air invariably produces condensation,
thereby liberating latent heat.
• Rising and saturated or precipitating air cools at a slower rate
than air that is unsaturated.
• This process is called wet adiabatic temperature change.
• The rate of cooling of wet air is approximately 50c per 1000
meters of change in elevation.
 Spatiotemporal Distribution of Temperature
• Altitude (most important), latitude, humidity and winds have
significant impacts on temperature conditions in Ethiopia.
• The location of Ethiopia at close proximity to equator, a zone of
maximum insolation, resulted for every part of the country to
experience overhead sun twice a year.
• Ethiopia, as it is a highland country & tropical temperature
conditions have no full spatial coverage; they are limited to the
lowlands in the peripheries.
• Mean annual temperature varies from over 30 0C in the tropical
lowlands to less than 100c at very high altitudes.
• The lowest &highest mean annual temperatures are recorded
in Bale Mountains &the Afar Depression respectively.
• Lowlands of north-western, western and south-eastern
Ethiopian experiences mean maximum temperatures of more
than 300C.
 Temperature Versus Altitude
Altitude (meter) Mean annual Temp (0C) Description Local Equivalent

3,300and above 10 or less Cool Wurch

2,300 - 3,300 10 – 15 Cool Temperate Dega

1,500 - 2,300 15 – 20 Temperate Woina Dega

500 - 1,500 20 – 25 Warm Temperate Kola

below 500 25 and above Hot Bereha

 Spatiotemporal Distribution of Temperature
• The temporal distribution of Ethiopian temperature is
characterized by extremes.
• Ethiopia’s daily temperatures are more extreme than its annual
averages.
• Monthly average temp. variation is minimal and the annual range
of temperature is small.
• In the low seasonal temperature variations; months from March
to June in Ethiopia have records of highest temperatures while
low temperatures are recorded from November to February.
• Southern part of Ethiopia receives highest records of temperature
in autumn and spring following the relative shift of the sun;
whereas in the northern part of the country, summer season is
characterized by higher temperature.
 Spatiotemporal Distribution of Rainfall
• The position of Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITC),
pressure cells, and Trade Winds determine the spatial and
temporal rainfall variation.
• The Intertropical Convergence Zone, or ITCZ, is the region
that circles the Earth, near the equator, where the trade
winds of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres come
together. The intense sun and warm water of the equator
heats the air in the ITCZ, raising its humidity.
• The inter-annual oscillation of the surface position of the ITCZ
causes a variation in the Wind flow patterns over Ethiopia and
the Horn.
• Following the position of the overhead sun, the ITCZ shifts
north and south of the equator.
Spatiotemporal Distribution of Rainfall
 Seasonal or Temporal Variabilities
Summer (June, July, August)
• Most of Ethiopia except Afar and Southeast lowlands receive
rainfall during summer
• High pressure cells develop on the Atlantic and Indian Oceans
around the tropic of Capricorn.
• During this season, Ethiopia and the Horn come under the
influence of the Equatorial Westerlies (Guinea monsoon) that
bring rain in this season.
• The Equatorial Westerlies (prevalent in June, July and August)
Autumn (September, October and November)
• In autumn the ITCZ shifts towards the equator weakening the
equatorial westerlies.
• During this season, the south easterlies from Indian ocean
showers the lowlands in southeastern part of Ethiopia.
 Seasonal or Temporal Variabilities

Winter (December, January and February)

• In winter, the overhead sun is far south of equator.
• During this season, Northeasterly winds originating from the
landmass of Asia dominantly prevail Ethiopian landmass.
• The northeasterly winds crossing the Red Sea carry very little
moisture and supplies rain only to the Afar lowlands and the
Red Sea coastal areas.
Spring (March, April and May)
• In this season, the effect of the northeast trade wind is very
much reduced; and the southeasterlies from the Indian Ocean
provide rain to the highlands of Somalia, and to the central and
southeastern lowlands and highlands of Ethiopia.
 Rainfall Regions of Ethiopia
1. Summer rainfall region
• Comprises most parts of the country, except the southeastern
and northeastern lowlands.
• The region experiences most of its rain during summer
(kiremt), while some places also receive spring (Belg) rain.
• The High altitudes and the windward side experience rainfall of
more than 1000mm.
2. All year-round rainfall region
• It has many rainy days than any part of the country.
• Found in the southwestern part of the country.
• Duration & amount of rainfall decreases as we move from
southwest to north and eastwards; and summer months gain
higher rainfall while the winter months receive lower amount.
• The average rainfall in the region varies from 1,400 to over
2,200 mm/year.
 Rainfall Regions of Ethiopia...Cont’d
Autumn and Spring rainfall regions
• South eastern lowlands of Ethiopia receive rain during autumn
and spring seasons under the influence of southeasterly
winds.
• The average rainfall varies from less than 500 to 1,000 mm.
Winter rainfall region
• Red sea escarpments and some parts of the Afar region
receive their main rain during the winter season from the
northeasterly winds.
 Agro-ecological Zones of Ethiopia
• Ethiopia possesses divers agro-climatic zones that have
traditionally been defined in terms of temperature.
1. The Wurch Zone (> 3,200 masl)
• Includes mountain systems of Ras Dashen, Guna, Megezez
Shoa, Batu, Choke, Abune Yoseph etc.
• Receives mean annual temperature of less than 10oC.
2. Dega Zone (2,300 - 3,200masl)
• In Ethiopia, the Dega-zone is long inhabited and has dense
human settlement due to reliable rainfall for agriculture and
absence of vector-borne diseases such as malaria.
3. Weyna Dega Zone (1,500 – 2300masl)
• Has warmer temperature and moderate rainfall highly
suitable for majority of crops grown in Ethiopia.
• It includes most of the agricultural land.
 Agro-ecological Zones of Ethiopia
4. Kolla Zone (500 to 1500 masl)
• Climate of the hot lowlands In the geographic peripheries in
south, southeast, west and northeastern part
• Average annual temperature ranges between 20oC and 27oC.
• Rainfall is low & erratic, but it could be as high as 1500 mm in
the wet western lowlands of Gambella.
5. Bereha Zone
• Very hot, arid, windy climate of the desert lowlands.
• Largely confined to lowland areas with altitude of lower than
500 meters.
• Its average annual rainfall is less than 200 mm, and average
annual temperature is over 27.5oC.
• is always in excess of rainfall.
• Evapo-transpiration
 Climate Change/Global Warming: Causes, Consequences and
Response Mechanisms
• Climate change refers to a change in the state of the climate that
can be identified (e.g. using statistical tests) by changes in the
mean and/or the variability of its properties and that persists for
an extended period, typically decades or longer.
• It refers to any change in climate over time, due to either natural
variability or human activities.
• Ethiopian climate experiences extremes such as drought, flood
etc.
• A rise in average temperature of about 1.3°C has been observed
between 1960 and 2006
• Precipitation has remained fairly stable over the last 50 years
when averaged over the country; though in some regions, total
average rainfall is showing decline.
• Rainfall variability is increasing (and predictability is decreasing)
in many parts of the country.
 Causes of Climate Change
Natural Causes
• such as variations in the energy budget, the position of Earth
relative to Sun, the position of continents relative to the
equator,
• Earth orbital changes: Changes in the tilt of the earth(23.5° to
the perpendicular plane of its orbit) can lead to small but
climatically important changes in the strength of the seasons.
More tilt means warmer summers and colder winters.
• Energy Budget: Although the Sun’s energy output appears
constant, small changes over an extended period of time can
lead to climate changes (the Sun has been very gradually
increasing its amount of radiation).
• Volcanic eruptions: volcanic eruption releases large volumes
of sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide, water vapor, dust, and ash
into the atmosphere that influence the climate.
Anthropogenic Causes
• The warming of earth planet in the past 50 years is majorly
driven by human activities generating greenhouse gases such
as carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide,
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), water vapor.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) i.e., carbon, chlorine, and fluorine
destroy the ozone layer.
 Industrial activities
 Decomposition of wastes in landfills,
 Agriculture, ruminant digestion and manure management,
 Transportation emissions
 Deforestation and land clearing
 Consequences of Climate Change
• Climate change impacts are higher in low income countries
that have limited capacity to cope with the changes.
• Impacts on human health (increased heat related mortality
and morbidity, greater frequency of infectious disease,
increased incidence of malaria...)
• Impact on water resources: melting of snow and glaciers that
increases rise in sea level, increase drought and floods,
distorted wind flow pattern, decreases water table, reduced
amount of run-off into rivers, streams and lakes.
• Impact on Agriculture: effects on agricultural land, increases
physiological stress and fodder quality and availability.
• Impact on Ecosystem: affects the success of species and
community adaptation; even leading to speciecs
disappearance when unable to resist.
 Climate Response Mechanisms
1. Mitigation and its Strategies
• Actions that are taken to reduce and control greenhouse gas
emissions changing the climate; through reducing sources of
these gases or enhancing the “sinks” that accumulate and
store these gases(such as the oceans, forests and soil).
• Practice Energy efficiency
• Increase the use of renewable energy such as solar
• Efficient means of transport implementation: electric public
transport, bicycle, shared cars etc.
 Climate Response Mechanisms
• 2. Adaptation Strategies
• Implies adapting life in a changing climate through adjusting
to actual or expected future climate.
• Meant to reduce our vulnerability to harmful effects of
climate change such as extreme weather events or food
insecurity.
Some of the major adaptation strategies include:
• Building flood defenses & water-permeable pavements to
deal with floods and storm water ,
• Plan for heatwaves and higher temperatures,
• Improve water storage
• Landscape restoration and reforestation,
• Diverse cultivation to be prepared for natural catastrophes
• preventive and precautionary measures like evacuation plans
 CHAPTER SIX
SOILS, NATURAL VEGETATION AND WILDLIFE RESOURCES OF
ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN
Ethiopian Soils: Types, Degradation and Conservation
• Soil is the loose material of the earth surface in which plants grow.
• It is fundamental to continue human existence.
• It provides nutrients for plants, which directly or indirectly provide
the food all animals need to stay alive and healthy.
• Soil is a delicate but highly varied composition of mineral
particles(45%), organic matter and living organisms (5%) as well as air
(20-30%) and water (20-30%).
• The formation of a particular type of soil depends on parent material,
climate, topography, living organism and time.
• Soil texture: large grains as in sand gives a course texture, and clay
and silt soils have a fine texture.
• Clay (very fine particles), Silt(fine particles) and Sand(coarse particles)
 Formation of Soil
• Soil formation takes a long time. It will take hundreds or thousands
of years to replace it.
• The basic components of soil are:
• Organic components: humus(the decomposition of leaves and other
plant material)and other living organisms.
• Inorganic components: rock particles, air, water and mineral salts.
• Weathering disintegrates the inorganic substances (rocks) of soils.
Mechanical (physical) weathering
• Causes decrease in size without appreciably altering composition.
• Thermal expansion and contraction
• Abrasion (erosion by friction) due to water containing sediment or
wind carrying debris
• Frost action as well as pressure release and unloading
 Formation of Soil

Chemical weathering
• Involves the modification of the chemical and mineralogical
composition of the weathered material.
• Hydrolysis(a chemical process in which a molecule of water is
added to a substance).
• Oxidation(is a process in which a chemical substance changes
because of the addition of oxygen).
• Carbonation(is the process of carbon dioxide dissolving in a
liquid).
• Solution(is a special type of homogeneous mixture composed of
two or more substances).
 Soil Horizons
• A soil horizon is a layer parallel to the soil surface whose physical,
chemical and biological characteristics differ from the layers
above and beneath.
• Dig down deep into any soil, and you’ll see that it is made of
layers, or horizons .Most soils have three major horizons (A, B, C)
and some have an organic horizon (O). The horizons are:
• O (humus or organic): Mostly organic matter such as
decomposing leaves.
• A (topsoil): Mostly minerals from parent material with organic
matter incorporated.
• B (subsoil): Rich in minerals that leached (moved down) from the
A horizons and accumulated here.
• C (parent material): The deposit at Earth’s surface from which the
soil developed.
Soil Horizons
 Soil Properties
Physical properties
• Include properties such as texture, structure, porosity etc. that
affect air and water movement in the soil.
• Soil texture (such as loam, sandy or clay) refers to the
proportion of sand, silt and clay sized particles.
• Soil porosity refers to the amount of pores, or open space,
between soil particles.
Chemical Properties
• Include soil properties like availability of minerals, electrical
conductivity, soil pH, etc. that affect soil biological activity and
indirectly the nutrient dynamics.
• Soil pH is defined as the hydrogen ion concentration. The pH
scale goes from 0 to 14 with pH 7 as the neutral point. pHs of
less than 7 indicate acidity, whereas a pH of greater than 7
indicates a base.
 Major Soil Types in Ethiopia
• FAO has identified 18 soil associations in Ethiopia base on their
physical and chemical properties.
1. Nitosols
• develop on gently sloping ground mainly from volcanic rocks
• associated with highlands with high rainfall and tend to be
leached having reddish-brown color .
• dominantly found in western highlands (Wellega), southwestern
highlands (Kaffa, Illuababora), Southern highlands, Central
highlands, and Eastern highlands.
 Major Soil Types in Ethiopia
2. Vertisols
• heavy clay highland soils; swell when wet, and crack when
dry.
• Difficult to manage, but have high natural fertility.
• mostly develop on volcanic plateau basalt &sedimentary
rocks.
• Commonly found in parts of Northwestern, Central and
Southeastern highlands ( Gojjam, Shewa, Arsi, Bale ).
 Lithosols, Cambisols and Regosol
• These soils are mostly found in rugged topography and steep
slopes.
• They are young, shallow and coarse textured and so have low
water holding capacity.
• Found in areas of low rainfall.
• Have have limited agricultural use & in most cases, left under
the natural plant cover and used for grazing.
• Found in rugged and steep slopes of Central Highlands, on the
Rift Valley Escarpments and highlands in of western Hararghe,
Danakil and eastern Ogaden.

• Lithosols, Cambisols and Regosol

 Xerosols, Yermosols and Solanchaks
• These are soils of desert soils majorly available in arid and
semiarid areas.
• Characterized by high salt content and low organic content,
but are rich in phosphorus and potash and can be very fertile
if irrigated.
• Xerosols are found in Ogaden and northeastern escarpments,
whereas the Yermosols and Solonchaks cover the Ogaden and
Afar plains.
• The Solonchaks are majorly located in salty plains of Afar.
 Fluvisols
• Fluvisols develop on flat or nearly flat ground, on recent alluvial deposits.
• These soils are associated with fluvial (river), marine (sea) and lacustine (lake)
deposits.
• Found at lower regions of rivers like Omo, Awash, Abay and the plains of Akobo
and Baro Rivers
• Fluvisols are much prized for intensive agriculture because:
 They develop on flat ground, deposition sites,
 They are associated with rivers and ground water, making them important for
large-scale irrigation and
 They are fertile and their fertility is always renewed as a result of deposition of
new soil materials.
 Luvisols
• Luvisols develop mainly in areas where pronounced wet and dry seasons
occur in alternation.
• Where leaching is not very high, they are found in association with nitosols.
• Luvisols have good chemical nutrients and they are among the best
agricultural soils in the tropics. So, they are intensively cultivated.
• Luvisols found on steep slopes (stony) and on flat areas (waterlogged) they
are avoided and left for grazing.
• In Ethiopia, places with luvisols include Lake Tana area, parts of Northern,
Central and Eastern Highlands and Southern lowlands.
 Soil Degradation
• Refers to as a change in any or all of soil status resulting in a
diminished capacity of the ecosystem to provide goods and
services.
• Deterioration of the physical, chemical and biological properties
of soil.
Soil degradation is a major concern for at least two reasons:
 First, it undermines the productive capacity of an ecosystem.
 Second, it affects global climate through alterations in water and
energy balances and disruptions in cycles of carbon, nitrogen,
sulfur, and other elements.
 Types of soil degradation
• Physical Degradation: refers to the deterioration of the
physical properties of soil through Compaction( densification
of soil caused by the elimination or reduction of structural
pores that makes soils suceptible to accelerated runoff and
erosion) and Soil erosion ( detachment of individual soil
particles, transportation and deposition by agents: water, air
and glaciers ) . In Ethiopia, an estimated average of 42 tons per
hectare of soils is eroded annually.
• Biological Degradation: Refers to reduction in soil organic
matter content, decline in biomass carbon, and decrease in
activity and diversity of soil fauna. It can be caused by
indiscriminate and excessive use of chemicals and soil
pollutants.
• Chemical Degradation entails nnutrient depletion as a result
of excessive leaching of cat-ions, and changes in soil pH
 Causes of soil degradation
• Natural and human-induced causes of soil degradation:
• Topographic and climatic factors such as steep slopes,
• Frequent floods and tornadoes,
• Storms and high-velocity wind,
• High-intensity rains and drought in dry regions
• Deforestation and overexploitation of vegetation,
• Overgrazing,
• Indiscriminate use of agrochemicals
• Lack of soil conservation practices,
 Soil Erosion Control Measures
• Since erosion is a natural process, it cannot be prevented. But
it can be reduced.
1. Biological Control measures reduce the velocity of surface
runoff, increase infiltration and reduce runoff
 vegetative strips,
 plantation, and reforestation. and etc.
2. Physical control measures
 terracing,
 trenches,
 contour ploughing,
 soil bunds
 Wind breaks or shelter belts
 check dams,
 Natural Vegetation of Ethiopia
• Natural vegetation refers to a plant cover that develops with
little or no human interference.
• Its distribution on the surface of the earth is uneven majorly
controlled by factors such as climate, soil types, drainage, etc.
• Uses of natural vegetation:
 shelter, food,
 source of fuel,
 pasture and grazing,
 raw material for industries,
 source of timber and non-timber products.
 moderating effect on local climate,
 home of wild life,
 medicinal values,
 minimizing soil erosion
• The characteristics of Ethiopia's natural vegetation are largely
determined by elevation (and temperature) and rainfall.
• Lowlands due to their low rainfall and high temperature have
harsh environment and are characterized by xeromorphic
plants (plants which are adapted to drought and high
temperatures).
• Highlands (up to about 3000 m) are cooler than the lowlands
and where there is adequate moisture a variety of forests can
be seen.
• In highlands of greater than 3000 masl, tree growth is limited
by the low temperature
• Ethiopia possesses an estimated number of 6000 species of
higher plants of which 10% are endemic.
 Major Natural Vegetation Types of Ethiopia
Vegetation belts of Ethiopia base on altitude:
• Afro-alpine and sub-afro alpine Region
• Forest Region
• Woodland Savannah Region
• Steppe Region
• Semi-desert Region
 Afro-alpine and Sub-afro alpine Region
• Ethiopia has the largest extent of Afro-alpine and sub afro-
alpine (high mountain vegetation) habitats in Africa.
• Found on mountains where elevation is greater than 3,200
masl.
The Afro-alpine region:
 found at very high altitudes (4,000 – 4,620 m).
 annul precipitation ranges between 800 and 1,500 mm,
mostly in the form of sleet or snow.
 Temperature records of 0oC and below are widely experienced
 Soils are mostly shallow and eroded.
 Vegetation in the Afro-alpine region consists of tussock
grasslands, scrub, scattered mosses and lichens
 Lobelia rhynchopetalum (giberra) is the dominant species in
the Afro-alpine.
Afro-alpine and Sub-afro alpine Region
Sub-afro-alpine region :
 Found roughly between 3,200 and 4,000 meters.
 plants in this region are adapted to somewhat less extreme
environment than the Afro-alpine.
 dominated by woodland, often degraded to scrub stages and
also wet grasslands.
 Erica arborea (Asta) is the dominant species in the Sub-afro
alpine region.
 Forest Region
• Forest is a complex ecosystem consisting predominantly of trees
that shield earth and support numerous life forms.
• The type of forests in any geographical region is determined by
climate, soil types, topography and elevation .
• In Ethiopia, forests are found at different elevations ( 450 - 3,500m
in humid parts & 2,300 - 3,300 m in arid parts); and are
characterized by variation in mean annual rainfall that range
between 200 and 2,200mm.
Classification of forests:
 Highland forests: Hagenia Abyssinia (Kosso), Juniper procera (tid),
Arundinaria Alpina(kerkha), Podocarpus falcatus (zigba), Aningeria
adolfi‑friedericii (keraro) and Olea africana (Weyra) forests;
 Lowland forests: Baphia, Gallery (Riverine) Forests that stretch
along the banks of the lower courses of rivers, dominant species
include Ficus sur (sholla) and different kinds of acacia trees.
 Forest Region

• Hagenia Abyssinia Ficus sur

 Woodland Savannah Region
• found in areas of wide altitudinal ranges (250 to 2,300 m).
• The plants in the woodland savannah are known for their
xeromorphic characteristics like shading of leaves during the dry
season.
Divisions:
• Juniper procera (tid) is dominant species for both the Junipers
Forests and Junipers Woodlands. The difference is in height: 3 -
45 meters tall in the forests and 10 -15 meters in the
woodlands.
• Acacia woodlands are dominated by both trees and shrubs,
which belong to the same genus 'Acacia'. E.g. Acacia
etbaica(grar),Acacia mellifera (Konter).
• Mixed deciduous woodlands: consists of trees that mainly shed
their leaves during the dry season.
 Woodland Savannah Region

• Acacia woodlands
 Steppe and Semi Desert Regions
• These are regions in the arid and semiarid parts of the country
where temperature is very high and rainfall very low.
• soils in both regions are generally alkaline and saline.
• In these regions xerophytic plants (drought-resisting ) such as
short shrubs, scattered tufts of grass species and a variety of
acacias are dominant.
• Trees are normally restricted to fringes along watercourses.
The steppe is found at elevations of 100 to 1,400 msal
• The steppe gets a mean annual rainfall of 100 to 550 mm
• Growing period lasts up to 2 months for the steppe
Semi-deserts are found at 125 masl to 600 masl.
• get a mean annual rainfall of 50 to 300 mm .
• Growing period is a maximum of one month .
 Steppe and Semi Desert Regions

• Caralluma Cactus
 Natural vegetation Degradation
• Over the past century, a rapid growth of the population has
led to overexploitation of the forest land; reducing the
coverage from about 40% to less than 10%.
• Major causes of forest degradation:
• Clearing of forests for cultivation
• clearing for construction
• Timber exploitation
• Charcoal burning and cutting for fuel
• Extensions of coffee and tea production areas
• Overgrazing
• Expansion of settlements.
 Natural Vegetation Conservation
• There is an urgent need of conservation of the ever-degrading
biodiversity.
• There are three main approaches of biodiversity conservation:
• Protection: through designation and management of some
form of protected area such as sanctuaries, national parks,
and community conservation areas.
• Sustainable forest management: involving sustainable
harvesting of forest products to provide a source of financial
income
• Restoration or rehabilitation: is the process of assisting the
recovery of a forest ecosystem that has been degraded,
damaged, or destroyed.
 Wild Life/wild animals in Ethiopia
• One of the few countries that possess diverse fauna with a high level
of endemicity because of wide range of ecosystems.
Wild animals are useful for:
• scientific and educational researches (valuable information for medical purposes
and environmental studies)
• physical and mental recreation (aesthetic value)
• promotion of tourism (economic value)
• its potential for domestication
• maintaining ecological balance
Ethiopia has:
• about 860 avian species (16 endemic species),
• 279 species of mammals (31 endemic species and six endemic genera), i.e. Walia
Ibex (Capra walie), Gelada Baboon (Theropithecus gelada), Mountain Nyala
(Tragelaphus buxtoni), Ethiopian Wolf (Canis simensis), Starck’s Hare (Lepus starcki
• 201 species of reptiles (14 endemic species),
• 23 species of amphibians (23 endemic species), and 150 freshwater fish (6 endemic
species).
 Wild Life/wild animals in Ethiopia
• The main wild life concentrations in Ethiopia occur in the southern
and western parts.
Classifications of wild animals in Ethiopia:
1. Common wild animals: those found in many parts of the country
like hyenas, jackals)
2. Game (lowland) animals: include many herbivores like giraffes,
wild asses, zebras etc. and carnivores like lions, leopards, and
cheetahs
3. Tree animals or arboreals : monkeys, baboons
4. A variety of birds in the Rift Valley lakes
5. Rare animals (gelada baboon and Semien fox) scattered in
highlands; walia- ibex in the Semien Massifs, Nyala in the Arsi Bale
massifs).
 Wildlife Conservation
• Conservation of Ethiopia’s biodiversity and ecosystems is vital to
ensure sustainable development, mitigate and adapt to the effects
of climate change and prevent the collapse of life-supporting
ecosystem services. As such we have:
21 major national parks , 2 wildlife rescue centres

2 major wildlife sanctuaries 22 controlled hunting areas

3 wildlife reserves, 2 botanical gardens, and 3 biosphere reserves
6 community conservation areas
Uniqueness of national parks in their wild animals:
• Abiyatta-Shalla lakes National Park : predominantly bird
sanctuary, important bird species include flamingos & pelicans.
• Omo, Mago, and Gambela National Parks have hippopotamus and
crocodiles in rivers and lakes.
• Semien and Bale Mountains National Parks have rare animals like
Walia ibex, Semien fox, gelada baboon and Nyala.
Spatial distribution of National Parks
 Challenges of wildlife conservation in Ethiopia
• Limited awareness on the importance of wild life
• Expansion of human settlement in protected areas.
• Conflict over resource
• Overgrazing
• Illegal wildlife trade
• Excessive hunting
• Tourism and recreational pressure
• Mining and construction material extraction
• Forest fire
Thank you!