BASIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

Communications System
 it is the sending , processing and receiving information by electrical or electronic means
 it refers to the basic process of exchanging information by electronics means

NOISE
 Transmitter

• It is a source of information, which must be delivered or transmitted to a particular destination

over a channel

• It is a collection of one or more electronic devices or circuits that converts the original source

information to a form or more suitable for transmission over a particular transmission medium.

• It performs encoding and modulation

Transmitter components :

• Modulator  it modulates the signal.

• Amplifier  it provides power to the signal

• Oscillator  it provides the carrier to the signal

 RECEIVER

• It is the destination upon which information from the transmitter is delivered.

• It is a collection of electronic devices and circuits that accepts the transmitted signals from the

transmission medium and then converts those signals back to their original form

• It performs decoding and demodulation

Receiver components :

• Demodulator (Detector)  it demodulates the signal.

• Amplifier  it provides power to the signal

• Output devices  devices such as speaker, monitor, printer, etc.

 Transmission Channel (Medium)

• It is the path or medium that the information travels from the transmitter to the receiver (i.e., it

provides a means of transporting signal between a transmitter and a receiver.)

• Attenuation (sometimes referred to as power loss) occurs at this point

Classification of transmission Media:

 Guided Media – those with some form of conductor that provides conduit in which
electromagnetic energy are contained
• Transmission lines (twisted pairs, twin lead, open-wire lines, coaxial cables, etc)
• Optical fiber cables
• Waveguides
 Unguided Media – signals are emitted and radiated through air or a vacuum
• Free space and Earth’s Atmosphere
BASIC TERMINOLOGIES
 Frequencies

 the number of times a particular phenomenon occurs in a given period of time

 expressed as Hertz (Hz) named after Heinrich Hertz, who was pioneer in the field of

electromagnetics.

Amplitude
 Period

 the time required for one complete cycle of a repetitive waveform, and is known as the reciprocal

of the frequency
 Wavelength

 the distance between two similar point of similar cycles of a periodic wave. (i.e., is the distance

traveled by an electromagnetic wave during the time of one cycle

 Propagation velocity

 Waves travel at characteristic speeds depending on the type of wave and the nature of the

propagation of the medium

VP = VF * c

c = 3 x 10^8 m/s
c = 186000 mi/s

VP = velocity of propagation
VF = velocity factor, unitless
c = speed of line in vacuum
 Signal

It is defined as a single-valued function of time that conveys information (i.e,

for every instant of the time there is unique value of the function)
 Analog vs Digital Signal

Analog Signal Digital Signal

 a continuous signal which  are discrete time signals

represents physical generated by digital
measurements modulation
 denoted by sine waves  denoted by square waves
 example : human voice in air,  example : CD's DVD and other
analog electronics devices digital electronic devices
MODULATION
 MODULATION

- it is a process of impressing low frequency information signals

into a high frequency carrier signal.

- it is also defined as the process of changing one or more

properties of the analog carrier in proportion with the information
signal
Information
Modulated signal
(Input)
(output)

Carrier
(Input)
 DEMODULATION

-it is the reverse process of modulation where the received

signals are transformed back to their original form
 CARRIER vs INFORMATION

INFORMATION
it is also known as intelligence, modulating
signals or baseband signal, which is
understandable information (one that is
modulating) such as voice, audio, video,
documents, etc.

CARRIER
 it is a high frequency signal (the one that is
modulated) used to carry information from
source to destination
 Why Modulation is Used?

 Length of antenna is proportional to the wavelength of transmitted

1. To reduce antenna size
wavelength

L = λ /4 λ=c/f

2. To reduce interference  information signals often occupy the same frequency

band, and if signals from two or more sources are
transmitted at the same time, they would “interfere” with
each other.

3. To allow multiplexing of
 Signals can be transmitted simultaneously
the signals
 TYPES OF MODULATION

Modulation

Analog Digital

Amplitude Digital
Angle Digital Radio
Modulation (AM) Transmission
Modulation
Amplitude Shift Pulse Amplitude
Frequency Keying (ASK) Modulation (PAM)
Modulation (FM)
Frequency Shift Pulse Width
Keying (FSK) Modulation (PWM)
Phase
Phase Shift Keying Pulse Position
Modulation (PM)
(PSK) Modulation (PPM)

Quadrature Amplitude Pulse Code Modulation

Modulation (QAM) (PCM)
 Analog Modulation

It is a modulation technique wherein both carrier and information are in

analog form
 Amplitude Modulation

• it is a modulation technique, invented by Reginald Fessenden where in the

information signal is analog and the amplitude of the carrier is varied
proportional to the information signal

Standard AM Range
- the standard AM Range is 535-1605khz
Standard AM Intermediate Frequency
- IF frequency for AM is 455khz
 Amplitude Modulation Mathematical Representation

Modulating Signal em= Em cos mt

Carrier Signal ec= Ec cos

Amplitude Modulated
Wave eam= A cos 𝐴=𝐸 𝐶 +𝑒 𝑚
𝑚 𝐸𝑐 𝑚 𝐸𝑐
𝑒 𝐴𝑀 =𝐸𝑐 cos ( 2 𝜔 𝑐 𝑡 ) + cos ( ω 𝑐+ ω m ) + cos ( ω 𝑐 −ω m )
2 2

Carrier signal Upper side band Lower side band

 Standard AM in Frequency Domain

Carrier
Amplitude
LSB USB

Frequency
fLSB fc fUSB
fc - fm fc + fm BW = fUSB - fLSB

BW = 2fM
BW = 2fm
 AM Modulation Index

Also know as coefficient of the modulation or depth of modulation.

It is the term used to describe the amount of amplitude change (modulation)

present in an AM waveform signal

𝐸𝑚
𝑚=
𝐸𝑐

𝐸 𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝐸 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑚=
𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛
 AM Modulation Notes

• The envelope is the curve produced by joining the tips of the individual RF

cycles of a modulated wave. The envelope contains the information.

• The ideal value for m is 1. Typically m is than 1. The condition where m is

greater than 1 should be avoided as it introduces serious distortion of the

modulating signal. This is know as overmodulation.

• Splatter – term used to describe additional side of frequencies produced by

overmodulation or distortion in an AM system.

 Example

The modulating signal 20cos(2) is used to modulate a carrier signal 40 cos (2).

Find the modulation index, percentage modulation, frequencies of sideband

components and their amplitude.

 Example

For an AM envelope with a maximum peak voltage of 52V and a minimum

peak to peak voltage of 24V , What is the percent of modulation

 Example

An AM signal has a carrier frequency of 400Mhz amplitude of 5Vp. It is

modulated by a sinusoidal wave with frequency of 2khz and peak amplitude

of 2Vp. What is the lower sideband frequency?

 Example

An AM signal has a carrier frequency of 3Mhz and amplitude of 3Vpk. What

is the amplitude of the sidebands if the modulation index is 0.6?

 Example

An AM signal has a carrier frequency of 400Mhz amplitude of 5Vp. It is

modulated by a sinusoidal wave with frequency of 2khz and peak amplitude

of 2Vp. What is the upper sideband frequency?

 AM Transmitter

OSCILLATOR  it provides the carrier to the signal

Crystal Oscillator : primarily used in AM transmitters

POWER AMPLIFIER  Increase the signal strength before the transmission

 Power Amplifier

POWER AMPLIFIER

CLASS A CLASS B CLASS C

All of this transformers are just basically bipolar junction transistor

 Classification of Amplifiers

CLASS A CLASS B CLASS C

uses entire input signal Uses 50% of the signal Uses less than 50% of the
signal
Maximum efficiency :
25 % or 50 % 78.5% More than 90%
 Block Diagram of AM Transmitter

INTERMEDIATE MODULATED
CRYSTAL BUFFER
POWER POWER
OSCILLATOR AMPLIFIER AMPLIFIER AMPLIFIER

SPEECH DRIVER PUSH-PULL

AF INPUT
AMPLIFIER AMPLIFIER AMPLIFIER

AF SECTION
 AM Transmitters

• Crystal Oscillator

 it provides a stable carrier frequency at a low power.

• Buffer Amplifier

 a class A RF amplifier that isolates the crystal oscillator to improve stability

• Intermediate Power Amplifier

 a class C RF amplifier that raises the output of a buffer to a level sufficient to drive the

modulated RF amplifier

 it amplifies the the signal to from the oscillators

 AM Transmitters

• Modulated Power Amplifier

 a class C RF amplifier that supplies the energy which required to drive the antenna

system at the rated RF power for high level modulation.

 it multiplies the signals from the IF power amplifier and push-pull modulator

• Speech Amplifier

 a class A AF pre-amplifier that raises the level of the input AF after being subjected to

processing and filtering

 it amplifies the weak audio frequency so that it can be detected by the driver amplifier. It

improves the signal to noise ratio before mixing

 AM Transmitters

• Driver Amplifier

 a class A/B/AB that supplies the necessary audio power to drive the class B modulator

 it amplifies the output of the speech amplifier so that it can be detected by the push-pull

modulator

• Push-Pull Modulator

 a class B AF output amplifier that varies the plate voltage of the class C RF amplifier in

accordance with the frequency and amplitude of the AF signal

 HIGH LEVEL MODULATION

High Level Modulation – the modulation takes place in the final element of the final
stage where the carrier signal is at its maximum amplitude.
 HIGH LEVEL MODULATION

Advantage:
High efficiency due to the use of the class C power amplifiers

Disadvantage:
 Large Power amplifier is needed to raise the modulating signal to
the desired power level
 LOW LEVEL MODULATION

Low Level Modulation – the modulation takes place prior to the output of element
of the final stage of the transmitter.
 LOW LEVEL MODULATION

For Low Level AM Transmitter:

• High power AF is not required

• Design is simpler
 Advantage , Disadvantage and Application of AM

Advantages : Disadvantages:

• AM Transmitters are less complex • Power wastage takes place

• Am Receivers are simple, detection is easy • Am gets affected due to noise

• AM waves can travel long distance • AM needs larger bandwidth

• Low Bandwidth

Applications

• Radio Broadcasting

• Picture transmission in TV System

 Different forms of Amplitude Modulation

 Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier (DSBSC)

 Single Sideband Suppressed Carrier (SSBSC)

 Single Sideband Reduced Carrier (SSBRC)

 Single Sideband Full Carrier (SSBFC)

 Independent Sideband (ISB)

 Vestigial Sideband (VSB)

 Review

 The “envelope” of an AM signal is due to

a. the baseband signal

b. the carrier signal

c. amplitude signal

d. none of the above

 Review

 Overmodulation cause :

a. distortion

b. splatter

c. both A and B

d. none of the above

 Review

 In AM wave, where is the audio intelligence located

a. in the carrier frequency

b. in the spacing between the sideband frequencies

c. in the spacing between the carrier and sideband frequencies

d. in the sideband frequency

 Review

 In AM , at 100% modulation:

a. overmodulation will occur

b. the peak voltages of the modulating signal and the carrier are equal

c. it is the typical value of modulation index

d. all of the above

 Review

 Type of information that can be sent using AM is/are:

a. audio

b. video

c. digital data

d. all of the above

 Review

 Audio signals are not propagated directly to space because:

a. to do so will entail additional costs

b. the signal will highly attenuated

c. it will require antennas that are to long

d. the signal that will be propagated will be too weak

 Review

 For ideal AM, which of the following is true:

a. m = 0

b. m =1

c. m <1

d. m > 1
 Review

 If m is greater than 1, what happens?

a. normal operation

b. carrier drops to zero

c. carrier frequency shifts

d. information signal is distorted

 Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier

A form of amplitude modulation is which the carrier is totally suppressed.

Amplitude
LSB USB

Frequency
fLSB fc fUSB
fc - fm fc + fm

DSBSC Equation:
 DSBSC Power Relationship

𝑃 𝑇 =2 𝑃 𝑆 𝐵

( )
2
𝑚
𝑃𝑇 =𝑃𝑐
2

= total or modulated powe, W

= carrier or unmodulated power, W
=power in one sideband, W
m = modulation index
DSBSC Current Voltage Relationship

= carrier or unmodulated current

= total or modulated voltage
= carrier or unmodulated voltage
m = modulation index, unitless
DSBSC Bandwidth Requirements

𝐵𝑆𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 =2 𝑓 𝑚 𝑎𝑥

= bandwidth, hz
= maximum modulation frequency
 Single Sideband Suppressed Carrier

A form of amplitude modulation is which the carrier is totally suppressed and one

of the sidebands removed

Amplitude
LSB USB

Frequency
fLSB fc fUSB
fc + fm

SSBSC Equation:
SSBSC Current Voltage Relationship

= carrier or unmodulated current

= total or modulated voltage
= carrier or unmodulated voltage
m = modulation index, unitless
 SSBSC Power Relationship

𝑃 𝑇 =𝑃 𝑆 𝐵

( )
2
𝑚
𝑃𝑇 =𝑃𝑐
4

= total or modulated powe, W

= carrier or unmodulated power, W
=power in one sideband, W
m = modulation index
SSBSB Bandwidth Requirements

𝐵𝑆𝑆𝐵𝑆𝐶 = 𝑓 𝑚 𝑎𝑥

= bandwidth, hz
= maximum modulation frequency
Peak Envelop Power (PEP)

2
𝑉 𝑟 𝑚𝑠
𝑃𝐸𝑃 =
𝑅𝐿

= load resistance
 Exam

1. An SSB transmitter generates USB signal with Vrms= 10V. Determine the peak

envelope power across a 50 ohms load resistance.

 Exam

1. If a voice signal extends from 300hz to 3khz the bandwidth using DSB is:
 Exam

1. If a voice signal extends from 300hz to 3khz the bandwidth using SSB is:
 Exam

1. If a voice signal extends from 300hz to 3khz the bandwidth using SSB is:
 Single Sideband Full Carrier (SSBFC)

A form of amplitude modulation is which the carrier is transmitted at full power but

only one of the sidebands is transmitted

Amplitude
LSB USB

Frequency
fLSB fc fUSB
fc - fm fc + fm
 Vestigial Sideband (VSB)

A form of amplitude modulation is which the carrier and one complete sideband is

transmitted, but only part of the sideband is transmotted

Amplitude
LSB USB

Frequency
fLSB fc fUSB
fc - fm fc + fm

This VSB system is used for the picture portion of a commercial television broadcasting
signal
 Angle Modulation

 It is a type of analog modulation in which the angle sinusoidal reference

function is varied in accordance with a modulation signal.

Two types of angle modulation

• Frequency Modulation

• Phase Modulation
 Frequency Modulation

 Modulating technique invented by Edwin Armstrong, where the information

signal is analog and the frequency of the carrier is varied proportional to the

information signal

Standard FM Range – 88-108Mhz

Standard FM Intermediate Frequency : 10.7Mhz

 AM vs FM

Amplitude Modulation Frequency Modulation

Amplitude: Varies Frequency: varies

Frequency: constant Amplitude: constant

Phase: constant Phase: constant

 Frequency vs. Time Period

Time Period : Minimum Time Period : Maximum

Frequency is : Maximum Frequency is : Minimum

 Frequency vs. Modulation

Amplitude Frequency Time Period

Amplitude Frequency Time Period

 Frequency Deviation

Frequency Deviation – it is the relative displacement of the carrier frequency in respect

to it’s unmodulated value. It is the amount of change in the carrier frequency produced

by the modulating signal

𝛿=𝑘 𝑓 𝑉 𝑚

frequency deviation

Vm = modulating signal peak voltage

 Frequency Deviation

Modulating Signal 𝑥 ( 𝑡 )=𝑉 𝑚 cos ( 2 𝜋 𝑓𝑚𝑡 ¿

Carrier v 𝐶 =cos ( 2 𝜋 𝑓𝑚𝑡 ¿

FM wave f

𝛿=𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
 FM Modulation Index

FM Modulation Index– it is the ration of deviation and the modulating signal frequency.

It determines the number of significant part of sideband in FM signal.

𝛿
𝑚=
𝑓𝑚

frequency deviation

m = modulation index

= modulating signal frequency

 Deviation Ratio

Deviation Ration – it is the worst-case modulation index and it’s equal to the maximum

peak frequency deviation divided by the maximum modulating signal frequency

DR

maximum frequency deviation, Hz

DR = deviation ratio

= maximum modulating signal frequency

 FM percent Modulation

FM Percent Modulation– it is the ratio of the frequency deviation actually produced

to the maximum frequency deviation allowed by law stated in percent form

𝛿
% 𝑚=
𝛿𝑚𝑎 𝑥

= percentage modulation, %

= frequency deviation, Hz

= maximum frequency deviation, Hz

 Carrier Swing

it is the peak-to-peak frequency deviation

C 𝑆=2 𝛿
 Frequency modulation

Minimum Frequency f min = f C − 𝛿

f m 𝑎𝑥 = f C + 𝛿
Maximum Frequency

Bandwidth of FM 𝐵𝑊 =2 f m 𝑥 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑

Carson’s Rule : 𝐵𝑊 =2( 𝛿 𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝑓 𝑚𝑎 𝑥 )

 Example

In an FM system, if the maximum value of deviation is 90khz and the

maximum modulating frequency is 15khz the calculate the deviation ratio

and the bandwidth of the system using Carson’s Rule

 Example

Using Carson’s rule, what is the bandwidth of an FM signal with 5khz maximum

frequency deviation and 2.5khz maximum modulating frequency?

 Example

Determine frequency deviation od a frequency modulated signal modulated by a

3khz sine wave reaching a maximum frequency of 200.02 Mhz and minimum

frequency of 199.98Mhz
Block Diagram of FM transmitter
 Phase Modulation

 Modulating technique where the information signal is analog and the phase of

the carrier is varied proportional to the information signal (it is similar to FM with

the phase shift of 90 degrees)

 Phase Deviation

It is the relative angular displacement (shift) of the carrier phase in radians in

respect to the reference phase.

𝜙=𝑘𝑝 𝑉 𝑚

= phase deviation, (rad)

PM modulation index

𝜙=𝑚

= phase deviation, (rad)

 PM vs. FM

PM FM

-modulation index is directly proportional -modulation index is directly proportional to

to the amplitude of the modulating signal the amplitude of the modulating signal and

and independent of its frequency inversely proportional to its frequency

 Advantages of Angle Modulation

 Noise immunity - most of noise results in unwanted amplitude variations in the

modulated wave . FM and PM receivers include limiters that remove the most of the

AM noise from the received signal before the final demodulated process occurs

 Noise Performance and signal-to-noise improvement – with the use of limiters, FM

and PM demodulators can actually reduce the noise level and improve the SNR during

the modulation process, this is know as FM thresholding

 Advantages of Angle Modulation

 Captured Effect - with FM and PM, a phenomenon know as captured

effect allow a received to differentiate between two signals received with the

same frequency.

 Power utilization and Efficiency – with FM and PM, the total power

remains constant regardless if modulation is present

 Disadvantages of Angle Modulation

 Bandwidth- high quality FM and PM produces many side frequencies, thus

necessitating a much wider bandwidth than is necessary for AM

 Circuit complexity and cost– PM and FM modulators, demodulators,

transmitter, and receivers are more complex to design and build than their

AM counterparts