The Cell

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 The Cell
• Basic morphological and functional unit of life
• Capable of independent existence (e.g. protozoans)
• Different sizes, shapes and forms because of their varied
specialized function
• The human body is composed of ~100 trillion cells
representing more than 250 cell types
 Levels of Organization
Chemical
Cell
Tissue
Organ
Organ system
The Cell Organism
The Cell
• TISSUES - composed of cells that perform the same general function and
are connected by some amount of extracellular material

• ORGAN - a more complex functional structure composed of tissues in

varying proportion

• ORGAN SYSTEM - consists of organs that have interrelated functions

 PROKARYOTES EUKARYOTES

ORGANISMS BACTERIA PROTIST, FUNGI

PLANTS,
ANIMALS
ORGANELLES FEW OR NONE NUCLEUS,
mitochondria, ER
DNA CIRCULAR Chloroplast,
Linear/Circular
RNA and Synthesiezed in the RNA-nucleus
PROTEIN same compartment Protein-cytoplasm
CELL DIVISION BINARY FISSION MITOSIS/MEIOSIS
The Cell
Common Basic Structures
1. Cytoplasm
2. Cell membrane
3. Nucleus
4. Nuclear envelope/membrane
  plasma membrane
The Cell Membrane  plasmalemma
 unit membrane

Functions:
• Protective covering that delimits the cell from its
surroundings
• Determines which substances can move in and
out of the cell and regulates the movement of
these substance (selective permeability)
• Provides attachment for the skeleton
(cytoskeleton) of the cell
• Receives and sends out stimuli
• Provides binding sites and receptors for enzymes
and other substances
• Allows cell-cell recognition
• Forms specialized junctions with the cell
membrane of the adjacent cell
The Cell Membrane
• lipid)
• protein
• cholesterol
• polysaccharides
• 8-10 nm thick
• tri-laminar structure
• two electron-dense sheets (phospholipid
heads)
• electron-lucent layer (phospholipid tails)
phospholipid molecule
1. globular head (hydrophilic)
2. two tails (hydrophobic) composed of fatty
acids
 Phospholipid Molecule
The Cell Membrane

3 main parts
a. head
• globular, polar and hydrophilic;
consist of glycerol that is
conjugated to a nitrogenous
compound by a phosphate bridge
a. 2 tails- slender, nonpolar and
hydrophobic; one of the two tails
consist of straight-chain saturated
fatty acid while the other consist
of unsaturated fatty acid
 Phospholipid Molecule
The Cell Membrane
 Phospholipid Molecule
The Cell Membrane
 Protein Molecule
The Cell Membrane

Proteins
a. Integral - spans the whole thickness and
projects out of both surfaces of the cell
membrane
b. Peripheral - inserted into or loosely
bound to either outer or inner surface of
the cell membrane
Protein Molecule
The Cell Membrane
 Cholesterol molecules in the cell membrane
• serve to stiffen and strengthen the cell
membrane
• make the cell membrane less permeable to
water soluble substances

• glycocalyx (cell coat): cell covering made

up of glycolipids, glycoproteins and
polysaccharides that contributes to cell-
cell recognition, cell to cell adhesion and
immunological response
Glycocalyx
 Unit Membrane
• vary in thickness from structure to
structure depending largely on the
amount of protein molecules it
contains
• generic term referring to the
trilaminar entities or structures that
comprises the cell membrane and
makes up or envelope all other
membrane-containing structures
within the cell
Unit Membrane
• the unit membrane model
was given by J. David
Robertson
• biomembranes are made up
of 3 layers
• 2 protein layers and 1
phospholipid layers
Specialized Junctions

• structures at localized regions of the cell

membranes of individual cells that are in
contact with other cells or the extracellular
matrix or communicating with each other
• Classified as:
1. occluding- zonula occludens-
prevents the mixing of membrane
proteins between apical and basolateral
membrane
Specialized Junctions
2. adhesive junctions-
a. zonula adherens -– initiate cell to
cell contact and maintenance of
contact
b. fascia adherens – integrin
containing structure
c. Desmosome - mediate direct cell
to cell contact
d. hemidesmosome - – facilitate
stable adhesion of basal cells
3. Communicating junctions
a. Gap junctions - channels that
physically connect adjacent cells
mediating the rapid exchange of small
molecules.
Specialized Junctions
Specialized Junctions
Cytoplasm
the homogenous substance
(cytoplasmic marix/cytosol) that
fills the space that is bounded
externally by the cell membrane
and internally by the nuclear
envelope and the various formed
elements that are embedded in it
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasmic Matrix (Cytosol)
• viscid, translucent and colloidal in
nature made up of 70% water
where inorganic ions and organic
molecules are dissolved.
• Site of many important
biochemical processes and
provides a suitable milieu for the
organelles in performing their
functions
Cytoplasm
Formed elements
• Organelles
• Inclusion bodies
• Fibrillar element
Organelles
• Membranous: delimited by unit
membranes
– Mitochondria
– Endoplasmic reticulum (rough and
smooth)
– Golgi complex
– Lysosomes
– Peroxisomes

• Nonmembranous:
– Centrosome
– Ribosome
 • all cells except RBCs and lens fibers
Mitochondria • motile, sausage-shaped or hotdog-shaped
organelle capable of self-replication and
considered as the "powerhouse" of the cell
• number of mitochondria per cell depends on
energy requirement (e.g hepatocyte
(workhorse) has 2000 mitochondria per cell)
Mitochondria
Mitochondrial matrix contains
• electron-dense granule rich in calcium and
magnesium
• enzymes involved in the TCA cycle(30-32
ATP molecule(aerobic) 2 molecule
(anaerobic) responsible for the generation of
ATP - the principal energy source of the cell
• enzymes complete the degradation of the
products of fat, carbohydrate, and protein
metabolism into CO2 and H2O
Mitochondria
• motile
• limited life span but they can replicate
in a manner akin to the binary fission
of the bacteria
• mitochondria in all cells have been
derived from the mitochondria of
female gamete
 Ribosomes
• Minute organelles (15-30 nm) visible only
under high magnification electron microscopy
as electron-dense granules that occurs in single
or in clusters (polyribosomes)
• Polyribosomes are connected to each other by
a fine thread of mRNA
Ribosomes • Ribosomes are 60% RNA (ribosomal) and 40%
protein and is composed of two subunits, small
and large
• Ribosomal subunit (ribonucleoprotein) is
in the form of dense, globular structure
that is composed of rRNA and some
associated proteins
• Cells with numerous ribosomes have intensely
basophilic cytoplasm due to presence of
phosphate groups in ribosomal RNAs
Ribosomes
• composed of a large subunit and a small
subunits which consist of ribosomal RNA
(rRNA) produced in the nucleolus of the
nucleus and proteins produced in the
cytoplasm

• ribosomal subunits are assembled separately in

the nucleolus of the nucleus
 Ribosomes
• The ribosomal subunits then move through the
nuclear pores into the cytoplasm, where the
ribosomal subunits assemble with mRNA to
form the functional ribosome during protein
synthesis
• free in the cytoplasm or attached to an
intracellular membrane complex called the
endoplasmic reticulum
• Free ribosomes – synthesize proteins used
inside the cell
Free and Bound Ribosomes
 Endoplasmic Reticulum
• System of interconnecting tubules, vesicles
and flattened sacs (cisternae) with cavities
or spaces that are enveloped by unit
membranes much thinner than cell
membrane
• Present in all cells but not visible in routine
histologic examinations but visible with use
fluorescent dyes and electron microscope
• Consist of two contiguous regions
• Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
• Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)
 Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Serves as supporting structure of the
cytoplasm and production of numerous
substance for use within, or exported by the
cell
• Receives the protein synthesized by attached
ribosome for processing. Processed proteins
traverse the membrane and migrates to the
lumen then packaged into transfer vesicles to
be transported to Golgi complex
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Site for the synthesis and transport
of lipids
• In hepatocytes, sER is more
developed than the rER where it
play an essential role in
detoxification
• In striated muscle fibers, sER is
modified into sarcoplasmic
reticulum needed in the storage and
release of calcium for muscle
contraction
 SMOOTH vs ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
SMOOTH ROUGH
ENDOPLASMIC ENDOPLASMIC
RETICULUM RETICULUM

No attached ribosomes With attached ribosomes

Site for the synthesis of Receives and process of

cholesterol and protein
phospholipids ; involves
in the transport of fatty
acids and other lipids

Merely made up of tubule More extensive

Golgi Complex
• A.k.a. Golgi bodies, Golgi apparatus
• Consist of several layers of smooth-
surfaced, membrane-bound flattened
tubes (cisternae) that are on top of each
other in a semicircular manner
• Not visible in H & E preparations but
in cells with intensely basophilic
cytoplasm, its presence is indicated by
a pale region (negative Golgi image)
adjacent to the nucleus
Golgi Complex • Receives protein processed by the rER
thru transfer vesicles and further
process (sulfated, glycosylated,
phosphorylated), concentrates, sorts
and packages them into fully
functional proteins
• Processed proteins are packaged into
secretory vesicles
• The proteins in the secretory vesicles
will be used by the cell itself or
transported out by exocytosis
• Has two surfaces:
• Convex/forming/cis face
• receives proteins
processed by the RER
thru transfer vesicles
• Concave/maturing/trans face
• site where proteins
processed by Golgi
bodies leaves the
organelle thru secretory
vesicles
Lysosomes
• chemical-containing pouches that
move about in the cytoplasmic
matrix
• The pouches are made up of unit
membranes and the chemicals
they contain are hydrolytic
enzymes (hydrolases)
 Lysosomes
• present in all cells and cannot be distinguished in H and E preparations
• for identification: utilize histochemical methods that identify their
hydrolytic enzymes (indirectly)
• intracellular digestive system that which can degrade nearly all
organic substances found in the cells
 Heterophagy, autophagy and phagocytosis
• Heterophagy- lysosomal digestion within the cell of a particulate material that
has been brought from the extracellular environment into the cell by
phagocytosis
• Phagocytosis- not common to all cell
Autophagy
 refers to the digestion of unneeded or senescent cell organelles
 Involves wrapping the target cell structure with a unit membrane
 The digested material diffuses out of the lysosomal membrane and is recycled
Peroxisomes
 spherical bodies which resembles
lysosomes
 Unlike lysosomes, peroxisomes do
not have hydrolases
 contains enzymes OXIDASE and
CATALASE which are synthesized
by the free ribosomes
 numerous in cells which are
metabolically active such as
hepatocytes
Peroxisomes
• oxidases in peroxisomes -important
in the process of oxidation 
detoxification and catabolism of
various substances taken into or
produced in the cell
 Centrosome
• dense spherical area in the cytoplasm
• located near the nucleus and many times
surrounded by Golgi complex
• consist of a pair of minute, short cylindrical
bodies called CENTRIOLES that are
surrounded by granular structures called
CENTRIOLAR SATELLITES
Centrosome (Microtubule Organizing Center)

• seen as a tubular structure

• made up of an electron-dense wall
surrounding an electron-luscent
(hollow) space in EM
• sources of the mitotic spindles
 INCLUSIONS
Temporary inert structures in the cell which includes
• Fat droplets ( lipid droplets); present in many cell
types but adipose cell is specialized to store lipid
• usually round, clear areas
• Glycogen- abundant in liver and muscle cells
• storage form of carbohydrates
• Zymogen granules (secretory granules)
• release substances by exocytosis
• Pigment granules
• ex: Melanin, Hemosiderin, lipochrome
ORO = lipids
Zymogen granules
NADH (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) + hydrogen=Hemosiderin
• Melanin accounts for the
brown to black discoloration
of the skin
• also present in the nerve cells
of the substantia nigra and
locus ceruleus in the brain
and the cells of pigment
epithelium of the retina
• Hemosiderin
• granules in cells such as
those in the spleen
• Lipochrome pigments ( lipochrome
granules, lipofuschin pigments,
lipofuschin granules
• yellowish-brown bodies; common
in muscle cells in the myocardium
and Sertoli cells
• Crystals
o not membrane bound and occur
freely; present in interstitial cells (of
Leydig) and Sertoli cells; no known
function
• Dust particles
o seen in cytoplasm of certain
phagocytes ( dust cells, pulmonary
alveolar macrophage); common
among smokers and city dwellers;
brown to black membrane bound
structure that contain exogenous
materials such as dust and
particulate carbon
CYTOSKELETON
• complex network of
fibrillar elements that
forms structural framework
or the skeleton of the cell
 Microfilaments
• involved in exocytosis and
endocytosis
• supportive elements
• for moving out of cell organelles
• locomotion of certain cells
Intermediate Filament

• the size is in between microfilaments and

microtubules
• composed of five major types which are
morphologically similar but different in
their protein content
Types of Intermediate Filaments
Keratin Filaments
• only present in epithelial cells
and numerous in
KERATINOCYTES which is
the main cell type present in the
epidermidis of the skin.
Desmin Filaments
• numerous in smooth and
formed bundles muscle than
striated muscle which are seen
around the myofibrils
Types of Intermediate Filaments
• Vimentin Filaments
• present in cells that arise from
mesenchyme such as fibroblast
and muscle cells.
• Neurofilament
• Present in all cell body and all the
processes of neurons
• It provides internal support for the
nerve cells
• Glial Filaments
• present in the supportive cells
called GLIAL CELLS (neuroglial
cells) of the CNS
Microtubules
• fibrillar structures that form
part of the cytoskeleton and
comprise the wall of
CENTRIOLES
• those that are attached to the
organelles play a role in the
movement of these
organelles within the
cytoplasm
Nucleus
• occupies the central region
and the largest structure inside
the cell
• present in all cells except
RBCs
• “data bank of the cell”
• consists of nuclear matrix,
chromatin, one or more
nucleoli and it is delimited
from the cytoplasmic matrix
by a nuclear envelope
Nuclear Envelope/Nuclear Membrane
• specialized portion of the rough
endoplasmic reticulum
• perforated with a circular opening
(nuclear pores which provide a
channel for exchange of substances
between the cytoplasm and the
nucleus)
 Chromatin ( chromatin material; chromatin threads)
• refers to the chromosomes
which are distinctly visible
during the cell division.
• The nucleus of all nucleated
human cells contains 46
chromosomes
Nuclear Matrix/Nuclear Sap/Nucleoplasm
• homogenous substance within
the nucleus where chromatin
and nucleoli are eembedded.
• composed of water, proteins,
metabolites and ions
Nucleolus
• spherical and highly basophilic
structure that is usually eccentrically
located in the nucleus
• principal function is to synthesize
RIBOSOMAL SUBUNITS
• primarily consists of three areas:
NUCLEOLAR ORGANIZING
REGION, PARS FIBROSA and
PARS GRANULOSA
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS WITHIN THE

What is Protein Synthesis?

- Proteins comprise many essential parts of cells and tissues
- They make up enzymes, hormones and hormone-like substances
- They are also important in immune response and cell
multiplication
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS WITHIN THE

Protein Synthesis (Gene Expression) Notes

Proteins (Review)
• Proteins make up all living materials
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS WITHIN THE
• Different proteins are made by combining
these 20 amino acids in different
combinations

• Non-essential amino acids ( can be

synthesized by the cell ) and some are
essential amino acids

Proteins
• broken into amino acid molecules
• absorbed in the blood stream
• transported into individual cells
• reassemble amino acids into polypeptide
chains synthesizing new proteins
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS WITHIN THE

Function of proteins:
1. Help fight disease

2. Build new body tissue

3. Enzymes used for digestion and

other chemical reactions are proteins
(Enzymes speed up the rate of a
reaction)
4. Component of all cell membranes
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS WITHIN THE

Making Proteins
Step 1: Transcription
Copying of genetic information
from DNA to RNA called
transcription
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS WITHIN THE

Making Proteins
Step 1: Transcription
DNA is too large to leave the
nucleus (double stranded), but
RNA can leave the nucleus (single
stranded)
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS WITHIN THE

Part of DNA temporarily

unzips and is used as a
template to assemble
complementary nucleotides
into messenger RNA
(mRNA)
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS WITHIN THE

mRNA goes through the

pores of the nucleus with
the DNA code and
attaches to the ribosome
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS WITHIN THE

Making Proteins
Step 2: Translation

• Decoding of mRNA into a

protein is called translation
• transfer RNA (tRNA) carries
amino acids from the cytoplasm
to the ribosome
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS WITHIN THE

• amino acids come from the food we eat

• broken down into individual amino acids
• rearranged into new proteins according
to the needs and directions of our DNA
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS WITHIN THE

• a series of three adjacent bases in

an mRNA molecule codes for a
specific amino acid -codon
• each tRNA has 3 nucleotides that
are complementary to the codon in
Amino acid
mRNA
• each tRNA codes for a different
amino acid

Anticodon
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS WITHIN THE

Amino acids are joined

together to make a
protein
 Protein Synthesis
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS WITHIN THE
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS WITHIN THE
 MOVEMENT OF MATERIALS ACROSS
THE CELL MEMBRANE
ENDOCYTOSIS
• refers to the transport of
substances from the
extracellular space into the
cells
• it can be
PHAGOCYTOSIS for solid
substances and
PINOCYTOSIS for liquid
substances
ENDOCYTOSIS
 MOVEMENT OF MATERIALS ACROSS
THE CELL MEMBRANE
EXOCYTOSIS
• refers to the process of transporting substances inside the cells across the cell
membrane and out of the cell
• occur in either two ways: REGULATED SECRETION or CONSTITUTIVE
SECRETION
REGULATED SECRETION
• occurs in GOBLET CELLS,
PANCREATIC ACINAR CELLS
and CELLS OF THE SALIVARY
GLANDS
• the secretory vesicles are first stored
in the apical portion of the cell where
they are accumulate and get further
dehydrated
• the dehydrated secretory vesicles
(secretory granules) are only released
from the cells when there is specific
signal to do so
REGULATED SECRETION
CONSTITUTIVE SECRETION
• occurs in cells such as
FIBROBLAST and
CHONDROBLASTS
• The secretory
products are
continuously released
from the cell
Thank you for Listening !!