UNIT III

Cargo, Geographic Factors, Vessel Management Systems Software

CARGO
◦ The main cargo and goods
◦ Foodstuff, livestock, crude oil and derivative products, cars and other vehicles, machinery and
equipment, dry bulk cargo, liquid bulk cargo, and chemical products.

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Shipping of Food Stuff
◦ Foodstuff includes various categories such as fresh, packaged, frozen, partially processed, and other
varieties. Foods present one of the most challenging goods to transport, due to their short life and high
probability of spoilage.

◦ Most other types of goods can spend several months onboard a vessel while being transported between
ports. However, foods are one of the few goods that must reach their destinations as a matter of urgency.

◦ For this reason, a large percentage of the food transportation industry is carried out through air freight.
However, ship and other vessels allow for large amounts of foods to be simultaneously shipped through a
single voyage.

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Contd/-
◦ The factors to be considered while leasing or considering foodstuff shipment are- short lifespan, high
chance of spoilage, and the probability of mid-journey shifting.

◦ The solution to most of these issues is by using refrigerated ships known as reefer vessels. They have
specially built temperature controlling units that ensure that the temperature is regulated throughout the
entire cargo storage holds of the ship.

◦ The temperature may vary depending on the type of the foodstuff being shipped, but it is generally
maintained at temperatures below 0⁰C. This helps to extend the lifespan of the goods. It also ensures that
moist conditions that usually enable bacteria and other agents of spoilage to grow are not present due to
the low temperatures.

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Transportation of Livestock and
Animals
◦ Spoilage can also occur if the goods are incorrectly packed. In such scenarios, goods may get crushed when placed under
heavier cargo. This renders the entire cargo unusable due to the state in which it is. Thus, appropriate packing must be
undertaken to keep the cargo separated on the basis of weight, and also stacked at suitable levels. This also eliminates the
problem posed by mid-journey shifting.

◦ For small amounts of loose goods, this shifting may only cause damage to the cargo itself. However, at larger quantities,
this may destabilize and ultimately capsize a ship, due to a phenomenon known as the Free Surface Effect (FSE).

◦ The commonly used ships for transporting foodstuff include reefer vessels (refrigerated in its entirety) and container
vessels (containers alone refrigerated – reefer units).

◦ Another type of food product commonly shipped includes grains and pulses. These are shipped in loose quantity, due to
the higher costs of packing and transporting individual cartons or packages.

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Contd-
◦ For this reason, they are sent in food-grade bulk carriers with below deck holds that are designed to
ensure that loading and unloading can easily happen.

◦ In addition to the units, there are also longitudinal bulkheads built to reduce the FSE brought out about
by the loose nature of the shipped goods. Such goods are loaded and unloaded using suction and vacuum
devices that can transfer large quantities of cargo.

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Contd/-
◦ Livestock and animals are another commonly transported cargo between several countries. This may be
for the purpose of breeding, for meat, or for animal bi-products.

◦ Transporting them presents challenges by way of ensuring that the animals survive the long journey. To
allow for this, there must be mechanisms by which they are provided with nutrition as would normally be
consumed. In addition, there must be provisions to regularly clean the living holds and the livestock.
Lastly, proper ventilation is a must.

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Contd/-
◦ Ships that are commonly used to transport livestock include modified bulk carriers and specialized
vessels intended to create space for different categories of animals.

◦ These vessels have decks within the storage holds that compartmentalize the cargo. There is adequate
lighting provided by artificial means in the case of multi-deck vessels. However, it is preferable to use a
split deck system to ensure that the animals reach the destination in the best possible condition. This
system entails keeping several decks below the main deck primarily as resting areas.

◦ The uppermost main deck serves to allow the animals to move and for fresh air and natural light to reach
them. HVAC systems are used to regulate temperatures and ensure that proper ventilation is achieved in
such ships.

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Transportation of LNG, CNG, and
Other Gas-Based Fuels
◦ One of the largest cargoes transported through ships is petroleum goods and its byproducts, in terms of
volume and gross revenue. This includes crude oil, volatile fuels, petroleum, LNG, CNG, and the various
derivatives.

◦ Ships are preferred for this type of cargo since they are one of the cheapest means of transport in terms of
the cost basis that we defined at the start of the article. Only pipelines are cheaper on a cost per ton basis
of transportation. The main cargoes discussed in this section include LNG, CNG, and other gas-based
fuels.

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Contd/-
◦ Such cargoes require specialized vessels with hulls capable of withstanding large pressures. This is
because of the peculiarity in the transportation conditions of such goods.

◦ For instance, LNG and CNG can cover large volumes in the gaseous form. Because of this, they cannot
be stored in this form in the cargo holds as the quantity shipped will be much lower than other types of
gases.

◦ Similarly, if stored in the gaseous form, there is a very high probability of an explosion occurring due to
the highly volatile nature of the cargo. So, the entire cargo is supercooled to very low temperatures that
force the cargo (CNG, LNG etc.) into a liquid form. This reduces the volume covered, improving the
cost of transport for every ton of fuel shipped. At the same time, it also reduces the volatility and the
subsequent chance of fire.

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Shipping Cars and Other Vehicles
◦ Shipping vehicles is a very common business adopted in and around the Middle East, Europe, some parts
of Asia (China, Japan, Taiwan, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore etc.) and the Americas. It generally
functions as a ferry service where cars are moved around the coastlines of a nation or neighbouring
countries.

◦ Ships called Ro-Ro (Roll on, roll off) are used for ferrying such cargo over coastlines. They are specially
built to withstand the large load exerted by the vehicles, while also taking into account the forces exerted
on the aft when the vehicles are loaded or lowered on to the ship.

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Contd/-
◦ The Ro-Ro is characterized by generally being 1 to 2 decks deep, with the superstructures and bridge
located at the fore. The aft has a lowering hydraulic ramp that allows vessels to directly be loaded on to
the vessel.

◦ In certain variations of the vehicle carrier vessels, there is no ramp, and the vehicle is lifted on to the
deck with the help of quayside cranes. Such vessels are more common when only unfinished vehicles are
being shipped for further outfitting, as they cannot roll on or roll off under their own power.

◦ Also, the ship has large ballast tanks present, so that the ship can be brought to a certain draft at which
the ramp can safely be lowered to allow vehicles to enter. After loading, the ship is ballasted down to
keep the vessel stable during the journey.

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Transportation of Machinery,
Equipment, and Factory Parts
◦ Shipping machinery and parts is a very lucrative industry, especially when parts are moved in large
numbers. This is because these goods do not have specific shipping requirements, can withstand most
forms of sea motion on their own, and do not have the problems generally faced by other types of cargo
(spoilage, volatility etc.).

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Contd/-
◦ However, the main issue with such goods is the possibility of rusting. The holds of ships are usually kept
dry as far as possible. However, during the journey, it is possible that leaks or other problems with the
ship allow moisture to develop in the holds.

◦ In such cases, corrosion and damage may occur. For this reason, general-purpose bulk carriers are
outfitted with specialized drying units that constantly monitor the air within the ship. Drying agents
composed out of calcium are also used to ensure that the holds stay free from any rust-causing agents.

◦ Another problem that may be encountered mid-voyage is the motion of the cargo being transported.
Larger structures such as cranes or heavy lift equipment are tethered down using pad eyes to the shell of
the hull. However, structures such as pipes or loose parts may shift during the voyage.

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Contd/-
◦ For this reason, as they are lowered into the hold in layers, special tethers are placed across the layer to
secure it in place. Through this, pipes and similar structures are kept in place.

◦ For loose and small goods, such as those used in electronics, regular divisions are placed in a
longitudinal manner across the hold to prevent shifting and the subsequent free surface effect that may
arise. These divisions along the length of the ship are called longitudinal bulkheads.

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Shipping Dry Bulk Cargo
◦ Dry bulk cargo refers to any cargo or good shipped in a loose quantity, that is stored within the cargo
holds without packaging. Common examples of such goods include foodstuff and machinery parts (both
have been discussed).
◦ Also, goods transported through dry bulk carriers include ores and minerals. These are generally shipped
in a loose condition in the holds.

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Contd/-
◦ The primary point to consider when shipping bulk goods is the possibility of cargo movement during the
journey. This may damage the goods and the ship or may destabilize the vessel due to the FSE. Thus,
some form of compartmentalization must be used to allow the goods to stay in position.

◦ Another commonly used technique of stabilizing the cargo is by netting the entire cargo hold so that
layers are created. Longitudinal divisions are also incorporated to reduce the transverse motions.

◦ When ships jointly transport minerals, ores, and oil in any form, the vessel is called an OBO carrier (for
Oil and Bulk Ore carrier). It is characterized by large wing tanks present at the edges of the cargo hold
for fluids (oil or ballast water), and a large central holding facility for the solid ore and mineral cargoes.

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Shipping Liquid Bulk Cargo

◦ Liquid bulk cargo specifically includes goods and cargoes that are liquid in nature and shipped in bulk.
The majority of cargo in this category belongs to petroleum goods and its byproducts. This encompasses
crude oil, various products obtained after the separation and processing of crude petroleum etc.

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Contd/-
◦ Such cargoes are highly volatile and pose a risk while transporting, not just to the crew and cargo
handlers but also for the environment. For this reason, the entire cargo hold is double-shelled and has a
double bottom to ensure that there is no possibility of cargo leakage during a collision.

◦ In addition, the ship has special slosh-proof tanks built into the cargo storage holds so that the FSE is
reduced by introducing longitudinal divisions and bulkheads to reduce sloshing.
◦ Adequate care must also be taken to keep flammable goods away the cargo holds, since reducing the
volatility of such liquid goods is not strictly feasible (unlike CNG, LNG, LPG, etc.).

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Contd/-
◦ liquid bulk cargo plays a vital role in global trade and is essential for various industries such as energy,
chemical manufacturing, food and beverage, pharmaceuticals, and agriculture.
◦ It enables the efficient movement of large liquids across long distances, facilitating international trade
and supply chain operations.
◦ Crude oil and petroleum products are among the most significant liquid bulk commodities, accounting
for a substantial portion of global trade.
◦ Chemicals, including industrial chemicals, solvents, and acids, are transported in bulk.
◦ Additionally, it includes food-grade liquids like vegetable oils, juices, wine, and other beverages.

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Types of Liquid Cargo
◦ Crude Oil: Unrefined petroleum extracted from oil wells is transported to refineries for processing.
◦ Petroleum Products: Refined products derived from crude oil, such as gasoline, diesel, jet fuel, and
liquefied petroleum gas (LPG).
◦ Chemicals: A wide range of chemicals, including industrial chemicals, acids, solvents, fertilizers, and
pharmaceutical ingredients.
◦ Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG): Natural gas cooled to a liquid state for efficient storage and transport.
◦ Food and Beverage Liquids: This includes edible oils, fruit juices, wine, milk, and other liquid food
products.

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Contd/-
◦ Tanker vessels are the primary mode of transportation for liquid cargo.
◦ These specialized ships are designed with large storage tanks to carry and transport liquids in bulk
quantities across oceans, rivers, and other waterways.
◦ Tankers come in various sizes, ranging from small coastal vessels to massive supertankers capable of
carrying millions of barrels of oil.

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Safe Transportation of Chemical,
Hazardous, and Toxic Products
◦ A large portion of the worldwide freight industry handles the transportation of chemicals and various
similar products. This takes place due to the expertise of certain countries in the synthesis of specific
chemicals. Demand in other parts of the globe requires large scale transportation of such cargo.

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Contd/-
◦ Chemicals pose several challenges to transportation in any form and by any mode. This is because of the
high risk of corrosion faced by the ship or container units, a chance of toxic leakage, a possibility of
accidental poisoning, and a chance of contamination. In all these cases, the ship, crew members, and
various handlers and operators suffer from inappropriately storing and shipping the cargo.

◦ In order to safely transport chemicals, poisonous goods, and toxic cargo, reinforced and specially
constructed storage units must be utilized. These are capable of withstanding corrosion and rusting and
can contain the cargo fumes, run-offs, and potentially hazardous side effects until it is unloaded and
transferred to the destination port.

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Contd/-
◦ Additionally, effective ventilation and HVAC systems must be put in place throughout the entire ship to
prevent build-up for noxious fumes
◦ Along with these precautions, the vessel must be designed with a double shell hull and double bottom
configuration.
◦ This ensures that in case the primary inner hull is breached in case of a collision, the chemicals do not
leak into the ocean resulting in an environmental disaster.

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Geographic factors
◦ Geographic factors play a crucial role in shipping logistics and must be carefully considered to ensure
efficient and safe transportation of goods.

◦ Waterways and Oceans: The specific water bodies through which shipments will pass, including oceans,
seas, rivers, canals, and lakes.

◦ Ports and Harbors: Locations where ships can dock to load and unload cargo, with considerations for
accessibility, infrastructure, and facilities.

◦ Coastline and Shoreline: The configuration of the coast and shoreline affects navigation, anchorage
points, and potential hazards such as reefs, cliffs, or shallow waters.

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Contd/-
◦ Geopolitical Considerations: Political boundaries, regulations, tariffs, and security concerns can affect
shipping routes, port access, and logistical planning.

◦ Topography and Terrain: Land features near coastlines, such as mountains, cliffs, and coastal plains, can
impact visibility, wind patterns, and potential hazards for navigation.

◦ Ecological and Environmental Factors: Environmental regulations, protected areas, marine sanctuaries,
and sensitive ecosystems may influence shipping routes and require adherence to specific environmental
standards.

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Contd/-
◦ Distance and Navigation Challenges: The distance between ports, potential obstacles, and navigation
challenges such as narrow passages or congested waterways must be considered for route planning and
scheduling.

◦ Seabed Conditions: Knowledge of seabed characteristics such as depth, sediment types, and underwater
hazards (e.g., rocks, wrecks) is crucial for safe navigation and anchorage.

◦ Supply Chain Connectivity: Geographic proximity to key markets, production centers, and transportation
networks impacts shipping efficiency, costs, and overall supply chain effectiveness.

◦ Emergency Response Infrastructure: Availability of emergency services, salvage facilities, and response
capabilities in case of accidents, spills, or other emergencies along shipping routes.
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Tank Cleaning
◦ Tank cleaning is the process of removing hydrocarbon vapors, liquids, or residues from cargo tanks
onboard a tanker. Tank cleaning may be required for one or more of the following reasons:
◦ To carry clean ballast.
◦ To gas-free tanks for internal inspections, repairs, or before entering the dry dock.
◦ To remove sediments from tank top plating. This may be required if the vessel is engaged in the
repetitive carriage of fuel oil or similar sediment settling cargoes. Although washing may not be
necessary for between consecutive voyages, assuming the cargoes are compatible, many Ship Owners
have found it prudent to water wash a small group of tanks on a rotation basis between voyages, thus
preventing any large accumulation of sediments.

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Some precautions
◦ Ventilate the tank using thorough ventilation or forced ventilation method and make the tank suitable for
man entry
◦ Fluid Contents of the tank should be removed as practicable as possible and stripped thoroughly before
entering
◦ Before making a man entry, the atmosphere of the tank should be tested for percentage of oxygen and
availability of any toxic gases. This has to be done using remote access if possible, otherwise the person
entering the tank for testing atmosphere must wear a breathing apparatus
◦ Various levels and compartments of tank is tested for the percentage of oxygen and availability of toxic
gases. A multi gas analyser is used and a person who is trained and has the knowledge of using such
equipment should carry out the inspection.

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Tank Cleanliness Standards
◦ Tank cleanliness standards and tank cleaning procedures standards are very closely related but they are
not the same thing.
◦ The standard of cleanliness required dictates the degree of cleanliness and cleaning outcome required.
◦ It is therefore a primary factor in determining the scope and methodology of the tank cleaning
procedures required.
◦ It is also critical to confirming that the post cleaning requirements of shippers and/or charterers have
been met.

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◦ The requisite process can be set out in four steps:

◦ First step is to establish, with certainty, the cleanliness standard for the ‘next cargo’ required. This sets
the scope of the cleaning procedures required.
◦ Second step is to establish the scope of the tank cleaning procedures required to attain the stipulated
cleanliness standard.
◦ Third step is to implement the appropriate scope of cleaning procedures while, at the same time, ensuring
compliance with both IMO/ flag state regulation and P&I insurance warranty obligations.
◦ Fourth step is to inspect and confirm that the tank cleanliness attained meets with shippers and/or
charterers pre-load approval.

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TANK CLEANING REGULATORY
COMPLIANCE
◦ MARPOL, Annex 1 – which regulates the controlled discharge of tank washings containing residue from
CPP tanks into the sea and/or the retention and discharge of slops and disposal ashore. Full discharge and
disposal records must be maintained in the Oil Record Book.
◦ SOLAS and MLC(Maritime Labour Convention) – which regulate the obligation to provide safe working
practices on board inclusive of safe entry and work by the crew in the cleaning of cargo thanks.
◦ ISM Code (SOLAS Chap. 9) – which requires that all shipboard operational procedures (including tank
cleaning) are detailed and kept updated in the SMS manual, inclusive of specific references to applicable
regulation and industry best practice.

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Load Lines
◦ The Load Line concept emerged in Britain in the 1870s to prevent merchant ships from being
overloaded.
◦ The fundamental purpose of a Load Line is to allow a maximum legal limit up to which a ship can be
loaded by cargo.
◦ By prescribing such limits, the risk of having the vessel sailing with inadequate freeboard and buoyancy
can be limited.

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Contd/-
◦ A vessel should have sufficient freeboard at all times. Any exceptions will result in insufficient stability
and excessive stress on the ship’s hull. This is where load-lines play an essential role, detecting whether
the vessel is overloaded and its freeboard tremendously effortless.

◦ Lloyd’s Register has established a minimum freeboard requirement for its classed ships to ensure their
good reserve buoyancy in heavy seas.

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Contd/-
◦ However, since the buoyancy and immersion of the vessel largely depend on the type of water and its
density, it is not practical to define a standard freeboard limit for the ship at all times.
◦ For this reason, the load line convention has put regulations that divide the world into different
geographical zones, each having a separate prescribed load line.
◦ For example, A vessel sailing in Winter on North Atlantic Ocean will have a greater freeboard than on a
voyage in Tropical Zones and Freshwaters.

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Contd/-
◦ All vessels of 24 meters and more are required to have this Load line marking at the centre position of
the length of the summer load waterline.

◦ Standard Load Line marking – This applies to all types of vessels.

◦ Timber Load Line Markings – This applies to vessels carrying timber cargo.

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Contd/-
◦ These marks shall be punched on the hull’s surface, making it visible even if the paint on the side of the
ship fades out. The marks shall again be painted white or yellow on a dark background/black on a light
background. The complete Load line markings consist of 3 vital parts.

◦ Deck Line is a horizontal line measuring 300mm by 25mm. It passes through the upper surface of the
freeboard.
◦ Load Line Disc is a 300mm diameter and 25mm thick round-shaped disc. A horizontal line intersects it. The
upper edge of the horizontal line marks the ‘Summer saltwater line’, also known as the ‘Plimsol Line.
◦ Load Lines – Load lines are horizontal lines are extending forward and aft from a vertical line placed at a
distance of 540mm from the centre of the disc. They measure 230mm by 23mm. The upper surfaces of the
load lines indicate the maximum depths to which the ships may be submerged in different seasons and
circumstances.

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International Ship and Port Facility
Security (ISPS) Code
◦ The ISPS Code is a set of measures to enhance the security of ships and port facilities
◦ The ISPS Code is a set of measures to enhance the security of ships and port facilities. It was developed
in response of the perceived threats to ships and port facilities after the 9/11 attacks.
◦ The ISPS Code is part of the Safety of Life at Sea Convention (SOLAS) and compliance is mandatory
for the 148 Contracting Parties to SOLAS.
◦ The ISPS code was implemented by IMO on July 1st 2004, as a comprehensive set of measurements for
international security. It prescribes responsibilities to government authorities, port authorities, shipping
companies, and seafarers.
◦ It applies to ships making international voyages, which include passenger ships & cargo ships of 500 GT
and above.

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ISPS code
◦ The Code takes the approach that ensuring the security of ships and port facilities is a risk management
activity and that, to determine what security measures are appropriate, an assessment of the risks must be
made in each particular case.

◦ The purpose of the Code is to provide a standardised, consistent framework for evaluating risk, enabling
Governments to offset changes in threat with changes in vulnerability for ships and port facilities through
determination of appropriate security levels and corresponding security measures.

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Recruitment
◦ Shipping companies recruit officers and crew through various channels such as maritime academies,
crewing agencies, online job portals, and direct applications.
◦ The recruitment process involves assessing candidates' qualifications, certifications, experience, medical
fitness, and suitability for specific roles onboard.
◦ Shipping companies may also consider factors like language proficiency, cultural background, and
diversity to ensure effective communication and teamwork among crew members.

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Training
◦ Once recruited, officers and crew undergo specialized training to enhance their maritime skills, safety
awareness, and compliance with international regulations.
◦ Training programs cover a wide range of topics, including navigation, ship handling, cargo operations,
firefighting, first aid, pollution prevention, and emergency response procedures.
◦ Training may be conducted onboard, at maritime training institutes, or through online courses accredited
by relevant maritime authorities.
◦ Ongoing training and skill development are essential to keep up with technological advancements,
regulatory changes, and industry best practices.

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Placement
◦ After completing recruitment and training, officers and crew are assigned to vessels based on their
qualifications, experience, and operational requirements.
◦ Shipping companies consider factors such as vessel type, trading area, voyage duration, and crew
rotation schedules when making placement decisions.
◦ Effective crew management involves balancing workload, maintaining proper rest hours, and fostering a
positive working environment onboard.
◦ Crew members' welfare, health, and social needs are also important considerations for ensuring job
satisfaction and retention.

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SOLAS convention
◦ Safety of Life at Sea Convention
◦ The SOLAS Convention in its successive forms is generally regarded as the most important of all
international treaties concerning the safety of merchant ships.
◦ As a general rule, the SOLAS Convention applies to cargo ships of 500 gross tonnage or over and
passenger ships on international voyages.
◦ The main objective of the SOLAS Convention is to specify minimum standards for the construction,
equipment and operation of ships, compatible with their safety. Flag States are responsible for ensuring
that ships under their flag comply with its requirements. The convention also highlights the necessary
certificates in order to indicate the compliance with requirements.

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