Iskandar Kadiir:

Based on the following informations SUMMARIZE AND CHANGE INTO PPTX Introduction

Conflict, which arises from the incompatibility of goals, is always with us. Conflicts affect everyday life
and

have different causes. Conflict can be considered negative in the sense that it damages relationships,
destroys

properties, infrastructure and can even take lives. This does not mean that conflicts are always
destructive

and negative, in fact they can be a turning point for alteration and improvement. It depends on how
the

conflict is managed and resolved. Conflicts should be managed in a way that reduces their negative
effects.

Managing conflict refers to addressing differences and antagonisms. The deepest form of conflict
handling

beyond management is conflict transformation which refers to the restoration of relationships between

conflicting parties.
Youth and women play key roles in the process of conflict management. It is important to equip them
with the

knowledge and skills to manage conflict.

The learning out comes of this module are as follows:

• To become familiar with the concept of conflict management;

• To differentiate formal and informal conflict management techniques;

• To understand indigenous conflict management mechanisms;

• To appreciate the role of women in conflict management;

• To acquire and understand conflict management skills and techniques.

19 Enabling University Peace Education - Training of trainers handbook

Modes or styles of conflict handling

The way that conflicts are managed has implications for personal and
group dynamics. The five

conflict handling modes that are developed in the Thomas – Kilmann

Conflict Mode Instrument
(Kilmann, 1992) evaluate the behaviour of an individual in a situation of conflict. The model

describes an individual behaviour in a conflict situation using two dimensions: assertiveness and

cooperativeness. The assertiveness dimension has to do with the attempt of an individual to satisfy

his or her own interests. Whereas the cooperativeness dimension goes beyond the satisfaction of

the individual’s own interests and extends to considering the satisfaction of the interests of others.

These two dimensions of individual behaviour in a conflict situation – assertiveness and

cooperativeness – are used to delineate five different ways of handling conflict. As illustrated in

Figure 2.1, the five conflict handling modes include: (1) competing, (2) collaborating, (3)

compromising, (4) avoiding, and (5) accommodating. The Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument

has been effectively used for more than three decades to enable those who are involved in

managing conflict in different contexts, to recognise the way conflict management modes or styles

affect personal and group dynamics.

Lecture 1: Conflict management and

the role of women

Conflict management

Students to do a quick brainstorm

as follows:

• How do you think conflict can be

managed?

• What roles can women and men

play in conflict management?

• Discuss with your neighbour.

Conflict is natural and inevitable, as

we are social beings with goals that
are sometimes

incompatible. But it is not always bad and can be a turning point for change, such as wars of

liberation. The negative effects of conflict should be managed to lessen, if not avoid, the potential

damaging effects. For example, since 2018 Ethiopia, has been battling with violent conflicts that

have led to the loss of lives, displacement, and destruction of property. These violent conflicts must

be properly managed to prevent the further fragility of the country and to support the peaceful
social relations and cohesion of society. Conflict management is one important tool available to

manage the effects of conflict.

Conflict management is a process by which incompatible goals can be reconciled and peace and

order can be restored. Some forms of conflict management also aim to restore the relationships

that are broken, and this is often referred to as conflict transformation. Conflict management can

be carried out by the parties in conflict themselves or by the intervention of a third party. But its

aim is to enable the parties in conflict to come to a solution.

Enabling University Peace Education - Training of trainers handbook 20

Figure 2.1: Thomas-Kilman Conflict Mode Instrument: The two-dimensional model of conflict handling
behaviour (Source: Kilmann2008, p. 2)

(a) Competing

The competing mode is assertive and emphasises the satisfaction of an individual’s own interest

above the interest of others. It is also power-oriented, as an individual uses any power they

possess to satisfy their own interests regardless of others.

(b) Collaborating

The collaborating mode is both assertive and cooperative. The individual collaborates with
others

to work towards satisfying the interests of all involved. Collaborating goes deep into the conflict

issues to distinguish the key interests of all sides, and it tries to come up with alternative

mechanisms that satisfy everyone. Because of the engagement that collaborating involves, parties

to the conflict have the opportunity to learn from other parties’ perceptions and understandings.

Moreover, the collaborating mode provides an opportunity for all parties to come up with an

innovative solution to the problem.

(c) Compromising

Compromising can be understood as conceding to some of the demands of others and finding a

middle ground that satisfies the partial interests of all parties. Compromising is something of a
middle ground between competing and cooperating, since the parties involved partially give up

their positions, decentring themselves to reach a solution. Compromising can help to solve

problems in a more direct way, but it does not provide the opportunity of engaging and exploring

the problem in the same depth that collaborating does.

(d) Avoiding

This mode of conflict handling is both unassertive and uncooperative. Instead of trying to work
to

satisfy their own or another party’s interest, the individual avoids the conflict all together. There

can be understandable reasons that people avoid conflict. They may be waiting for a better time

to manage it, they may feel intimidated, or they may simply not have the resources and want to

pull back from a hostile context.

21 Enabling University Peace Education - Training of trainers handbook

(e) Accommodating

The accommodating style is unassertive, but it is cooperative. In accommodating mode, an

individual suppresses his or her own interests while trying to satisfy the interest of the other

parties. This mode can promote altruism, selflessness, and concern for the interest of others.

However, the outcome for the person making accommodations can be less than optimal and even

damaging. Too much accommodation can result in long term resentment and could be a symptom

of a person’s powerlessness if they are not accommodating willingly.

Student Reflection:

• What do you think are the benefits and challenges associated with each of these 5 modes of

conflict management?

• Which of the models would you be most likely to adopt, and how do you think this is influenced

by your culture, gender or age?

• If so, which ones and why?

• Share your thoughts with your neighbour.

Gender Based Violence (GBV)

Gender-based violence (GBV) is defined by the Office of the High Commissioner for Human

Rights (OHCHR) as violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual, or

psychological harm or suffering, based on gender discrimination, gender role expectations

and/or gender stereotypes, or based on the differential power status linked to gender. One

form of Gender-Based Violence is sexual violence and this is often referred to as Sexual and

Gender-Based Violence (SGBV). SGBV is a serious human rights violation and whilst it is

endemic in times of peace, the risk rises significantly in periods of armed violent conflict.

The OHCHR report that conflict results in higher levels of gender-based violence against

women and girls, including arbitrary killings, torture, sexual violence and forced marriage.

This often mirrors and builds upon pre-existing gender norms and discrimination. The

OHCHR report published in 2021 states that sexual violence is increasingly being used as a

weapon of war. While women and girls are in general more likely to be the subject of sexual

violence and men the perpetrators, men and boys have also been victims of sexual violence,

especially in contexts of detention.

SGBV is not only an issue in conflict situations but also reaches high levels in post-

conflict situations. This is due to the general break down of law and order, the

availability of
weapons, the breakdown of social and family structures and the “normalisation” of
gender based
violence. Human trafficking is also exacerbated during and after conflict owing to the

breakdown of political, economic and social structures, high levels of violence

and factionalism.
Enabling University Peace Education - Training of trainers handbook 22

The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE)’s Office for Democratic

Institutions and Human Rights (ODIHR) is one of the world’s principal regional human rights
bodies that was established by participating states. It is based in Poland and is active in Europe,

the Caucasus’, Central Asia and North America. The ODIHR clearly outlines how acts of SGBV can

amount to international crimes for which perpetrators are liable under international law.

Depending on the circumstances, they may constitute crimes against humanity, war crimes and/

or genocide. The 1998 Rome Statute, which established the International Criminal Court (ICC),

expressly mentions rape, sexual slavery, enforced prostitution, forced pregnancy, enforced

sterilization and other forms of sexual violence of comparable gravity as crimes against

humanity. They can also constitute war crimes in both international armed conflicts and

non-international armed conflicts. The OSCE gives the examples of the International Criminal

Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) and the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR)

as being examples where successful international prosecutions have taken place. They also give

examples where prosecutions have taken place in national courts and evidence given

in national tribunals of peace and reconciliation.

For many women SGBV is a part of their everyday reality reflecting the gender power
structures as

well as social and gender norms of their communities. For many women and girls, the

manifestation of this is domestic abuse and violence.

Student reflection:

Reflecting on your own community consider the following questions:

• What do you think are the main causes of SGBV in your community?

• How is SGBV perceived in your community?

• Are there any sanctions for perpetrators?

• Discuss with your neighbour.

The role of women in managing conflict

Women are not just the victims of conflict, as they are often perceived to be. They also play key

roles in managing conflict and building peace. They can be critical in determining the outcomes

of
conflict, either as perpetrators of conflict and violence, or as peacemakers.

In October 2020, the Human Rights Council (Resolution A/HRC/RES/45/28 - https://daccess-ods.

un.org/tmp/2844647.16911316.html) recognized the crucial role that women play in the prevention

and resolution of conflicts and in peacebuilding. This resolution stressed the importance of the

full, equal and meaningful participation and involvement of women in all efforts for the

maintenance and promotion of peace and security.

Women have an important role in traditional conflict management mechanisms across

various

communities and cultures in Ethiopia. They also play crucial roles in preventing conflicts. However,

they are not visibly empowered to participate in decision making and their role as key players and

change agents of peace is often sidelined.

In Sidama tradition, for instance, women are engaged in peacebuilding through nurturing

children in ways that prepare and socialize them towards peaceful relations. Culture, peace,

tolerance, and traditions of nonviolence are embedded in and transmitted through mothers. Yet

Sidama women are prohibited from taking part in Elders’ Council (Songo) meetings in their

respective localities, even when the meetings consider issues concerning and affecting women

themselves. Thus many traditional institutions and cultures undermine women and their roles in

society, especially when it relates to peacebuilding.

23 Enabling University Peace Education - Training of trainers handbook

Studies indicate that women are often socialized in ways that help them manage disputes and

support peace in their communities. For example, if women participate in the creation of peace

agreements, the agreement is 35% more likely to last at least 15 years (UN Women, 2015). This

implies that if women are empowered and get the chance, they can play a significant role to

effectively handle conflicts. Women’s roles in managing conflict can be described in three
different

phases of a conflict, namely: pre-conflict, during conflict, and post-conflict stages.

Pre-conflict stage

In the pre-conflict stage, women can help to deescalate tense situations. This often involves

managing the feelings of others, including youth and men. Women can play an informal,

preventive role in the early stages of conflict. They may advise and influence conflict protagonists

through their personal relationships and warn them of the consequences of violence and the

potential damage that can be caused to the community.

In the Arssi-Oromo tradition, for instance, when women know that a conflict is about to erupt, they

call for each other, move to the place where it is about to occur, stand between the disputing
parties and raise their ‘Siinqqee’ to the sky, insisting the disputing parties stop fighting. In peace

studies, this is called ‘interpositioning’ (Oldenhuis et al 2021). ‘Siinqqee’ is a stick that symbolizes

Oromo women’s political, economic, societal power and spiritual authority. As an institution,

‘Siinqee’ mobilises women’s duty, responsibility, and authority to resolve conflict. In most cases the

disputing parties do not escalate the conflict as they fear the ‘Siinqee’ curse. It is believed that if

one or both sides of the disputing parties disobey women and keep fighting, the ‘Siinqqee’ curse

will also impact those who refuse to stop the fight.

The Gammo women also try to prevent conflict by lying down under the knees of the parties in

conflict, dropping their traditional belt in front of them, and asking the parties not to move over it,

or else. They ask those who want to fight to stop by saying:

For the sake of my breast that you sucked, stop quarrelling! I forbid you

with the bones of my dead families, for the sake of my womb that did hold

you for nine months, stop fighting and I am the symbol of Saint Mary!

(Alemu, 2019, p. 1182).

Enabling University Peace Education - Training of trainers handbook 24

During the conflict

During the conflict, women play a crucial role. They often make
attempts to stop the violence, settle
issues, and work towards a more sustainable peace. The Liberian women’s nonviolent peace

movement during the Liberian fourteen years civil war (1989-2003) is an interesting example of this.

The movement was led by the 2011 Nobel Peace Laureate Leymah Gbowee, who is a peace activist,

social worker, and women’s rights advocate. The movement pressured warring factions to come to

the negotiating table, through campaigning, religious practices, and the threat of withholding

intimacy. This helped to end the civil war and establish democracy which created an opportunity to

appoint Ellen Johnson Sirleaf, the first woman president in Africa).

In Ethiopia, women help convince their family members to stop fighting and settle their disputes

through peaceful means. They may also ask elders in the community and religious leaders to

intervene and settle the conflict. Women play an effective role in influencing elders and religious

leaders in this way. They support efforts to end conflict and mobilize resources to finance peace

meetings, and invite others to engage in peace work.

Post-conflict stage

As in the pre and active conflict stages, women play a pivotal role post-conflict in consolidating

peace. For example, the Oromo women sing a song which can provide psychological preparation to

admit wrong-deeds and is a moral appeal to the individuals or groups who refuse to cooperate in

peacemaking. In the ‘Siinqqee’ institution of the Arssi-Oromo culture, song is an essential element

and is considered to have dynamic power to attract and pursue the parties in dispute to be calm

and sit for reconciliation. Moreover, in most Ethiopian traditions, women celebrate the reconciliation

process by emitting different sounds like ‘Elile’ and clapping their hands, and preparing meals and

drinks (Alemu, 2019).

Summary

To sum up, conflict is natural, and as social beings, we live with it. Conflict is negative when it is

damaging and destructive, but if a conflict is properly managed it can be a turning point for

positive
change. Managing conflict is therefore important, particularly for countries such as Ethiopia

suffering from violent conflicts. Conflict management is the process of enabling the parties in

conflict to overcome animosity, fix broken relationships, and move towards peace. This can be done

either by the parties in conflict, by women or through the intervention of a third party. Managing

conflict can be done in many ways depending on the context and the individuals involved. The

parties may adopt one of the five conflict handling modes from the Thomas-Kilman Conflict Mode

Instrument (see Figure 2.1): competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, and

accommodating. In the process of managing conflict, women play important roles. Their input is

crucial in fixing relationships that are broken and building peace, particularly using traditional

conflict management mechanisms embedded in different cultures in Ethiopia.

25 Enabling University Peace Education - Training of trainers handbook

Group Activity 1: The issue of domestic violence

You are working with a famous online peace influencer who wants to highlight the roles of both

men and women in ending domestic violence.

Your task, in your group, is to create a 3-minute drama that explores the issue of domestic

violence with reference to the Stages of Conflict Model.

You should show the different ways that women and men can bring positive change to their

communities and help to resolve family tensions without resorting to violence or aggression.

Once you have created your drama you will present it to the wider group in order to discuss the

gender dynamics and important roles played by women and men in moving towards sustainable

peace within families.

Group Activity 2: Conflict Modes

You will be put into one of five groups and your group will be assigned one of the five

conflict modes and scenarios below (1-5). Please familiarise yourself with the conflict

mode and the scenario you have been allocated and address the following questions:
• What are the advantages of using the mode of conflict management you have been

allocated?

• What are the disadvantages of this mode of conflict management?

• What are the implications on women’s roles when using this mode of conflict

management?

• Do women use different modes of management as compared to men? If so why?

• Be prepared to share a summary of your discussions with the rest of your classmates

Group

Number

Conflict

Mode
Seniario

1Avoiding You are having a conversation with someone who voices opinions you disagree

with. Rather than argue, you switch topics or leave.

2 Accomodating Your manager needs you to stay late at work to complete an important

project. You agree to accommodate them and do whatever it takes to

meet the deadline.

3 Competing You take your vegetables to market to sell, there is

already a trader

selling the same items, but you continue to sell your items and compete

with them at a more competitive price.

4Collaborating There is lots of housework to do in preparation for a big

celebration. You work as a team to negotiate and agree the tasks.

5 Compromising You and your friend want to watch different films. You agree one

chooses the film on this occasion and the other can choose next time.

Enabling University Peace Education - Training of trainers handbook 26

Students to do a quick brainstorm as follows:

• What techniques do you know of to manage conflict?

• How effective do you think they are?

There are various techniques for managing conflicts, which can be classified into two sub categories:
formal and informal. While formal conflict management techniques deal with judicial

settlement or litigation, informal conflict management techniques focus on practices such as

negotiation, mediation, arbitration, and reconciliation, which can draw on deeply rooted traditional

and social customs. It should be noted that the concept of informal conflict management

techniques can be misleading, as for many communities these processes and associated

institutions are not regarded as informal but are the norm. The informal concept is therefore might

not be applicable in all contexts. A better way of framing these conflict management techniques is

by re-labelling them as judicial and alternative dispute resolution mechanisms.

Conflict management techniques help the parties in dispute to come together to find a resolution,

either independently or with third party support. The focus is not only on how the conflict

ends, but also on the process. The techniques are the means by which the conflicting parties

manage the disputes between them and restore peace.

Ethiopia has experienced violent conflicts in recent years. Although there are formal and
informal

(alternative dispute resolution mechanisms) conflict management mechanisms that are embedded

in the culture of different ethnic groups, these have struggled to prevent violent conflicts. This

demonstrates that the presence of conflict management techniques alone does not suffice – they

must be well-implemented, recognising the root causes and the context (see Unit 1), and must also

be prioritised by all parties involved. Understanding these techniques, and their merits and

limitations, is necessary for effective management of conflicts.

Formal/Judicial conflict management

Formal/Judicial conflict management refers to a process whereby parties bring their case to a

court through a lawsuit (see Figure 2.2). Parties are expected to prepare a written complaint in line
with the judicial process. This can be supplemented with additional evidence or testimonies that

support the complaint made. Without this, it is difficult to win the case. In the formal

conflict management process the parties often receive a decision after a lengthy and costly

court

process. They sometimes have the right to appeal, often to the next court level, or they can accept

that the decision made is final.

In the formal judicial conflict management technique, both parties in dispute have the right to

present their cases, complaints and evidence to a neutral decision-maker and have the right to be

heard. However, the parties in dispute have no right to control the process, set their own

deadlines, or decide the outcome.

Lecture 2: Conflict Management

Techniques

27 Enabling University Peace

Education - Training of trainers
handbook

28

Litigation

It should be noted that judicial organs that are involved in the litigation process function under

the existing legal, social, political and economic context. Litigation tends to be more relevant for
inter-personal disputes, but can also be used for inter-group conflicts.

Pros

The advantages of litigation include:

• An opportunity to settle disputes in a structured way in accordance with the law;

• Alternative to informal
Legal representation conflict
from management
a trained techniques
and qualified if these have failed or the parties to
professional;

the conflict have chosen not to use them;

• Competing claims tested through an evidence-based process;

• Opportunity for appeal.

Cons

The following are some of the disadvantages of litigation:

• Lengthy and costly;

• Depending on the nature of the court, the parties may lose their confidentiality and may have

private information made public;

• Creates ‘winners’ and ‘losers’;

• The process is punitive (based on punishment rather than reconciliation) and so there may be

continual animosity which could further damage relationships;

• Can be alienating for some people or groups

• In many conflict affected countries trust in the formal system is weak and also there is a

problem of asserting the rule of law.

Student Reflection:

• What do you think are the

benefits and disadvantages of
litigation? Are there others you
would

add to the lists above?

• Give some examples as to what

circumstances litigation could be
useful?

• Under what circumstances might

litigation be a challenge?

• What are the alternatives?

• Discuss with your neighbour.

Informal conflict
management/Alternative Dispute
Resolution Mechanisms

Informal conflict management techniques are non-judicial alternative dispute resolution

mechanisms and are usually geared towards reconciliation, maintenance, and improvement of

social relationships (see Figure 2.2). They can help to ensure peaceful relations and harmonious

living and enhance social and public order. Arguably, they can be more sustainable than modern
regarded as the norm in many communities and may be regarded as ‘formal’ mechanisms in many

contexts.

Enabling University Peace Education - Training of trainers handbook

Ethiopian communities have local institutions and mechanisms which are effective in handling

disputes among people. Elders, chiefs, community and religious leaders all play a significant role

in settling conflicts at different levels using non-judicial alternative dispute resolution

mechanisms.

Those who lead informal conflict management are often individuals who are highly respected,

senior, and well known for their good personal character, wisdom and knowledge, including religious

leaders. However, their composition, number, and the procedure they follow may vary from ethnic

group to ethnic group depending on specific local customs and practices. Different faiths and

religions may also have their own non-judicial alternative dispute resolution mechanisms.

Non-judicial alternative dispute resolution mechanisms have a long history of successfully

settling disputes at different levels, from the individual to the community to the societal. These

traditional practices are deeply rooted in the culture, religion, and history of different ethnic

and identity groups in various contexts including Ethiopia. They arise from age-old practices that

have regulated the relationships of the peoples in the community and may be based on spiritual

foundations.

Different ethnic groups in Ethiopia have mechanisms and institutions which are effective in

handling conflict among people. For instance, Jarsumma and Sinqee in Oromo; Aba’la in Afar;

Shimgelina in Amhara; Nemo in Shinasha; Ye Joka in the Gurage people; the Xeer and Odayaal in

Somali; and the Korefinie in the Gamo are among the many indigenous conflict management

mechanisms in Ethiopia (for more information see Pankhurst et al, 2008, Muluken, 2020). All

these indigenous conflict management mechanisms which are embedded in the different

cultures are expressions of informal conflict management.

Non-judicial alternative dispute resolution mechanisms include negotiation, mediation,

arbitration,
and reconciliation. A discussion of these mechanisms and the pros and cons of each of the

techniques is presented below.

Negotiation

In negotiation two disputing

parties or groups arrive at a
settlement between
themselves. The
disputing parties must be willing and ready and should have some level of trust. The outcome of

the negotiation is decided between the two parties in dispute, through conversation.

Pros

The following might be considered advantages of negotiation:

• It is an informal process;

• It is relatively flexible and affordable;

• Depending on the progress the parties make, there can be quick resolutions as
compared to

litigation;

• It helps to maintain a direct relationship between the disputing parties, in that the
parties are

encouraged to communicate with each other rather than the court or another third
party;

• Ensures privacy if it takes place in a private environment.

Cons

The disadvantages of negotiation include:

• The parties to the dispute may not come to a settlement;

• The parties are not legally bound to honour the commitments made during the
negotiation;

• Imbalance of power between the parties is possible in negotiation.

29 Enabling University Peace Education - Training of trainers handbook

Mediation

Mediation occurs when a negotiation is assisted by a third party. It involves the non-coercive

intervention of a third party, often called a mediator, either to reduce or bring conflict to a peaceful
settlement. In the process of mediation, the disputing parties are the ones who decide who can

attend the mediation and how to manage the dispute. The mediator can facilitate the conversation but

does not determine the outcome of the negotiation. An example is the role the US played in the Grand

Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) negotiations and how it went from being an observer to a

mediator. Another example is the role played by the African Union in the Tigray conflict.

The steps the mediator goes through to settle the conflict could include:

(1) meeting with the parties separately and together to enter into discussion;

(2) using appropriate facilitation techniques to bring the parties of the dispute to a settlement;

(3) facilitating productive conversation between the parties;

(4) clarifying ground rules and general regulations;

(5) helping each side clarify its interests and concerns.

These steps aim to reach an agreement that is perceived fair and accepted by the parties, providing

an opportunity for conflicting parties to improve their current relationship by managing conflict and

hopefully achieving a mutually acceptable solution.

Some mediators are professionals, but others could be close friends or family members, or colleagues

and other well-respected people.

Student reflection:

• Have you ever mediated a conflict between two people you know?

• What was the outcome/solution?

• How did you feel about the process?

• Was the issue successfully resolved for both parties?

Pros

The advantages of mediation are very similar to those of negotiation but also include having

the support of a caring third-party mediator. The mediator may also be able to navigate

moments of tension or power imbalances between the different parties.

Cons

The disadvantages of mediation are also similar to negotiation, however a third-party mediator

may introduce their own biases to the process.

Enabling University Peace Education - Training of trainers handbook 301

Arbitration

Arbitration is predominantly a mode of informal conflict management wherein the disputing parties go

through a process to achieve an amicable resolution by an impartial third party known as an

‘arbitrator’. Arbitrators are professionals who have expertise in the subject area of the dispute. Unlike

mediation, the arbitrator has the final say in the outcome.

Arbitrators have a specific role. This role includes:

• Considering the evidence and arguments provided by

both parties;

• Examining and establishing the facts based on evidence

presented by the conflicting parties;

• Basing their decisions on the principles and the laws of

the country including any conventions and

legal precedent. Alternatively, they may also be basing

their decision on professional body
• Arbitrators
guidelines or should operate
codes of conductin depending
accordanceon
with
thecodes
natureof conduct. They should be free from bias
of the dispute.
and focus on justice in the procedures and their decisions;

• Keeping confidential all matters relating to arbitration proceedings and decisions;

• Being courteous and respectful to all parties;

• Performing duties diligently and concluding the case as promptly as the circumstances permit.

Arbitration can either be voluntary or mandatory. When it is mandatory, it can be because of a court

order, legislation, or a contractual agreement.

Student reflection:

• How might arbitration affect the behaviour of the parties?

• What types of disputes might benefit from arbitration?

• Discuss with your neighbor.

Pros

Arbitration has similar advantages to negotiation and mediation; however, the arbitrator also brings

specialized skills to the process and operates according to well established codes of conduct.

Processes and procedures are less formal than the court process.

Cons

The disadvantages of arbitration are similar to negotiation and mediation. However, in some

circumstances entering arbitration can limit future options to seek justice through the court system. It
can also be very difficult to appeal an arbitrated settlement. Arbitration does not seek to support the

restoration of relationships between conflicting parties.

Reconciliation

Reconciliation is both a process and a goal. Issues of

peace and justice usually bring challenges to

reconciliation. It is primarily concerned with healing the wounds of conflict and rebuilding

relationships. Reconciliation cannot be forced and can sometimes take years, decades, or generations

to achieve, if ever. This is because it asks people to consider forgiving those who have harmed them.

Before forgiveness is possible there can often be a process of truth telling and recognition of the

harm caused, this could include a formal apology.

31 Enabling University Peace Education - Training of trainers handbook

Some reconciliation processes are very small-scale, dealing with interpersonal conflicts or local

issues. Others are very large-scale and may involve the whole country in a process of truth and

reconciliation, such as has happened in South Africa or Rwanda. Reconciliation is not just about

the outcomes, but it is also about the process towards transforming relationships.

Most communities in Ethiopia have traditions to seek sustainable peace and harmony after conflict

through reconciliation. For example, in the Oromo tradition, ‘Arara’ or reconciliation is not only
about
settling the conflict or restoring peace but includes healing the wounds of the parties sustainably.

When conflict occurs, either at the inter-ethnic or intra-ethnic level, all causes of the conflict are

investigated, and the case referred to the Gada leader. It then follows the mechanism of ‘Jarsuma’

(reconciliation) and the process of giving Guma (compensation to the victim). The Gada leader forms

councils of elders to find the facts and come up with solutions that could heal the wounds and make

sustainable peace between conflicting parties.

Pros

The main advantage of reconciliation is that it seeks a more meaningful solution to the conflict by

healing the wounds of conflict, strengthening relationships, and enabling forgiveness. It also

addresses the root causes of conflict by encouraging people to think of the experiences of everyone

involved and seeking ways to transform relationships.

Cons

The primary disadvantage of reconciliation is that it requires deep reflection from the parties, which

cannot be forced and so can take a long time, and which can take an emotional toll on those involved.

Types Formal/

Judicial

Informal/

Non-
judicial
alternativ
e dispute
resolutio
n
mechanis
ms

Techniques Litigation Negotiation Mediation Arbitration Reconciliation

Third Party Judges, courts

Has decision

making power

Facilitator

No decision making

power Mediator
No decision-making

power

Arbitrator

Has decision making

power
Self-guided and

Third-Party or

Conciliator

No decision-making

power