Foundations of Modern

Networking
SDN, NFV, QoE, IoT, and Cloud

By: William Stallings

Chapter 2
Requirements and Technology
 Types of Network and Internet
Traffic
Elastic Traffic
Can adjust, over wide ranges, to changes in delay and
throughput across an internet and still meet the needs
of its applications
Is the traditional type of traffic supported on TCP/IP
based internets
Is the type of traffic for which internets were designed

Applications that generate such traffic typically use

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) or User Datagram
Protocol (UDP) as a transport protocol
 Types of Network and Internet
Traffic
Inelastic Traffic

 Does not easily adapt, if at all, to changes in delay and

throughput across an internet
 Examples of inelastic traffic include: multimedia transmission
such as voice and video, and high-volume interactive traffic
 Requirements may include:
 Throughput
 A minimum throughput value may be required
 Delay
 Also called latency
 Delay jitter
 The magnitude of delay variation is a critical factor in real-time
applications
Real-Time Traffic Characteristics
An example of inelastic traffic

Are concerned with timing issues as well as packet loss

In most cases there is a requirement that data be

delivered at a constant rate equal to the sending rate
In other cases a deadline is associated with each block
of data, such that the data are not usable after the
deadline has expired
Big Data
Refers to everything that enables an organization to
create, manipulate, and manage very large data sets
and the facilities in which these are stored
Infrastructure
 Rational database management systems (RDBMS)
 Network-attached storage (NAS)
 Storage area networks (SANs)
 Data warehouses (DWs)
 Business intelligence (BI) analytics
Big Data
The impact of big data on an enterprise’s networking
infrastructure is driven by the so-called three V’s:

Vol • Growing amounts of data

um
e

• Increasing speed in storing and

Vel
ocit reading data
y

• Growing number of data type and

Vari
abil sources
ity
Areas of Concern:

Network Storage Secure data

Latency Processing
capacity capacity access
• Running big • The real or • Massive • Big data can • Big data
data analytics near-real-time amounts of add significant projects
requires a lot nature of big highly pressure on combine
of capacity on data demands scalable computational sensitive
its own; the a network storage are memory and information
issue is architecture required to storage from many
magnified with address the systems, sources like
when big data consistent low insatiable which, if not customer
and day-to- latency to appetite of properly transactions,
day achieve big data, yet addressed, GPS
application optimal these can negatively coordinated,
traffic are performance resources impact video streams,
combined must be operational and so on,
over an flexible efficiency which must be
enterprise enough to protected
network handle many from
different data unauthorized
formats and access
traffic loads
Cloud Computing
 Intracloud, intercloud, core, together with the OSS components,
are the foundation of cloud services composition and delivery
 Functional requirements for this network capability:
 Scalability
 Networks must be able to scale easily to meet the demands of moving
from current cloud infrastructures of hundreds or a few thousand servers
to networks of tens or even hundreds of thousands of servers
 Performance
 Traffic in both big data installations and cloud provider networks is
unpredictable and quite variable
 Agility and flexibility
 The cloud-based data center needs to be able to respond and manage
the highly dynamic nature of cloud resource utilization
Quality of Service (QoS)
 The measurable end-to-end performance properties of a network
service, which can be guaranteed in advance by a service level
agreement (SLA) between a user and a service provider, so as to
satisfy specific customer application requirements

Commonly specified properties include:

• Throughput
• Delay
• Packet jitter
• Error rate
• Packet loss
• Priority
• Availability
• Security
Quality of Experience (QoE)
 A subjective measure of performance as reported by the user;
relies on human opinion
 Is important particularly when dealing with multimedia
applications and multimedia content delivery
 QoS processes by themselves are not sufficient in that they
do not take into account the user’s perception of network
performance and service quality
 Categories of factors and features that can be included in
QoE are:
 Perceptual
 Psychological
 Interactive
Routing Characteristics
 The primary function of an internet is to accept packets from
a source station and deliver them to a destination station
 To accomplish this, a path or route through the network must be
determined
 Generally, more than one route is possible; therefore, a routing
function must be performed

 Selection of a route is generally based on some performance

criterion
 Simplest criterion is to choose the minimum-hop route (one that
passes through the least number of nodes) through the network
 A generalization of the minimum-hop criterion is least-cost
routing; in this case, a cost is associated with each link, and, for
any pair of attached stations, the route through the network
that accumulates the least cost is sought
Routing Protocols
Routers are responsible for receiving and forwarding
packets through the interconnected set of networks
Each router makes routing decisions based on
knowledge of the topology and traffic/delay conditions
of the internet
A degree of dynamic cooperation is needed among the
routers
The router must avoid portions of the network that have
failed and should avoid portions of the network that are
congested
Routing Protocols
There are essentially two categories of routing protocols
which are based on the concept of an autonomous
system (AS)
An AS exhibits the following characteristics:
 An AS is a set of routers and networks managed by a single
organization
 An AS consists of a group of routers exchanging information
via a common routing protocol
 Except in times of failure, an AS is connected (in a graph-
theoretic sense)

An interior router protocol (IRP) is a shared routing

protocol that passes routing information between
routers within an AS
Backpressure
 Can be exerted on the basis of links or logical connections

 Flow restriction propagates backward (against the flow of data

traffic) to sources, which are restricted in the flow of new
packets into the network
 Backpressure for all traffic on a particular link is automatically
invoked by the flow control mechanisms of data link layer protocols
 Backpressure can also be selectively applied to logical connections so
that the flow from one node to the next is only restricted or halted
on some connections, generally the ones with the most traffic
 Used in Frame Relay and Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) networks
 Use of these networks has declined considerably in favor of Ethernet
carrier networks and IP-based Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS)
networks
Choke Packet
 A control packet generated at a congested node and transmitted
back to a source node to restrict traffic flow
 Either a router or a destination end system may send this
message to a source end system
 On receipt of a choke packet the source host should cut back the
rate at which it is sending traffic to the specified destination
until it no longer receives choke packets
 The choke packet can be used by a router or host that must
discard IP datagrams because of a full buffer
 The router will issue a choke packet for every packet that it discards
 A system may anticipate congestion and issue choke packets when
its buffers approach capacity

 Receipt of a choke packet does not imply delivery or nondelivery

Implicit Congestion Signaling
 When network congestion occurs, two things may happen:
 The transmission delay for an individual packet from source to
destination increases, so that it is noticeably longer than the
fixed propagation delay
 Packets are discarded

 If a source can detect increased delays and packet discards,

it has implicit evidence of network congestion

 Congestion control on the basis of implicit signaling is the

responsibility of end systems and does not require action on
the part of network nodes

 Is an effective congestion control technique in

connectionless, or datagram, networks, such as IP-based
internets
Explicit Congestion Signaling
 Explicit congestion signaling approaches can work in one of two directions:

Backward Forward
• Notifies the source that congestion • Notifies the user that congestion
avoidance procedures should be avoidance procedures should be
initiated where applicable for traffic initiated where applicable for
in the opposite direction of the traffic in the same direction as the
received notification received notification
• It indicates that the packets that the • It indicates that this packet, on this
user transmits on this logical logical connection, has encountered
connection may encounter congested resources
congested resources • In some schemes, when a forward
• Backward information is transmitted signal is received by an end system,
either by altering bits in a header of it echoes the signal back along the
a data packet headed for the source logical connection to the source; in
to be controlled or by transmitting other schemes, the end system is
separate control packets to the expected to exercise flow control
source upon the source end system at a
higher layer
Categories of explicit congestion signaling approaches:

Binary Credit based Rate based

• A bit is set in a data packet • These schemes are based on • These schemes are based on
as it is forwarded by the providing an explicit credit to providing an explicit data
congested node; when a a source over a logical rate limit to the source over
source receives a binary connection; the credit a logical connection
indication of congestion on a indicates how many octets or • The source may transmit data
logical connection, it may how many packets the source at a rate up to the set limit
reduce its traffic flow may transmit • To control congestion, any
• Common for end-to-end flow node along the path of the
control, in which a connection can reduce the
destination system uses data rate limit in a control
credit to prevent the source message to the source
from overflowing the
destination buffers
• Defined in Frame Relay and
ATM networks
 Software-Defined Networking
(SDN)
 A driving factor for SDN is the increasingly widespread use of
server virtualization

 In essence, server virtualization masks server resources from

server users, making it possible to partition a single machine
into multiple, independent servers, conserving hardware
resources

 It also makes it possible to quickly migrate a server from one

machine to another for load balancing or for dynamic
switchover in the case of machine failure

 Server virtualization has become a central element in dealing

with big data applications and in implementing cloud
computing infrastructures
End of Chapter 2