Chapter 6

CONSCIOUSNESS
Chapter Overview
• What Is Consciousness?
• Two Dimensions of Consciousness: Wakefulness and Awareness.
• Attention: Focusing Consciousness
• Training Consciousness: Meditation
• Sleeping and Dreaming
• Hypnosis
• Altering Consciousness with Drugs
 The Global Workspace Theory holds that
What is consciousness? consciousness is a place where we attend to
Consciousness is the awareness of information that is deemed important. Things like
one’s surroundings and of what is thoughts, sensations, etc. all exist within a shared
in one’s mind at a given moment. space, and attention is what illuminates what is
important to us at that time.
Our book describes three theories
of consciousness:
Synchronization is the idea that consciousness
occurs when neurons from different brain regions
work together to form our experience.

Radical Plasticity Theory states that consciousness

is a skill the brain learns over time.
Two Dimensions
of Consciousness
Consciousness consists of two
dimensions: wakefulness and awareness
• Wakefulness refers to the degree of
alertness a person exhibits, or the
extent to which they are awake or
asleep
• Awareness refers to the monitoring of
information from one’s environment
and internal experiences
Levels of Consciousness
Minimal consciousness
• The reticular activation system, pontine tegmentum, anterior insula, and cingulate cortex all play
roles in consciousness. Particularly, the reticular activating system is involved in wakefulness and
sleep.
• Our book describes three forms of minimal consciousness:
• Coma is a state in which the eyes are closed and the person is unresponsive and unarousable.
• Vegetative state is a state of minimal consciousness in which the eyes might be open, but the
person is otherwise unresponsive.
• Minimally conscious state is a state in which a patient demonstrates intentional behavior but
cannot communicate.
• Both vegetative and minimally conscious states qualify as disorders of consciousness, which make
up a diagnostic category including the variety o ways in which wakefulness and awareness may be
impaired.
Levels of Consciousness
Moderate consciousness
• This level of consciousness consists of our mind processing information just below the threshold of
awareness. Examples of this form of consciousness include sleeping, dreaming, and the tip-of-the-
tongue phenomenon.

Full consciousness
• Full consciousness is characterized by high levels of both wakefulness and awareness. Our book
describes to levels of full consciousness:
• Flow is a state of mind in which an individual is optimally engaged in a task and they become
unaware of time.
• Mindfulness is a heightened sense of awareness of the present moment, coupled with an accepting
stance toward both internal and external stimuli.
Attention
Attention is the limited capacity to process in formation that is under
conscious control. Our book describes three types of attention: selective
attention, sustained attention, and shifting attention.
• Selective attention is the ability to focus our attention on specific
stimuli (both internal and external), while ignoring other stimuli.
• One type of selective attention is dichotic listening. This occurs
when information is presented to each ear, but only one ear is
attended to.
• Selective attention can lead to a phenomenon called
inattentional blindness, which occurs when individuals do not
absorb a specific stimuli in a scene because they were attending
to other stimuli.
• Perceptual load theory holds that attention to information is
constrained by the demands of the tasks at hand and the attentional
resources one has available to them. This theory explains why our
selective attention is occasionally broken.
• One phenomenon in which our selective attention is broken is the
cocktail party effect. This occurs when we selectively attend to
one stimuli and tune out the rest, but our attention is interrupted
when we hear our name.
Attention
Attention
• Another type attention is sustained attention, which is the ability to maintain focused attention on a
particular stimulus. As we continue to pay attention to a stimulus, the more easily we will become distracted
and lose focus.
• A third type of attention is shifting attention, also called divided attention or multitasking.
• It is impossible to truly multitask or divide our attention, but our attention may shift rapidly between
various stimuli, depending on the stimuli.
• When we shift attention between stimuli, some information is lost. If both tasks consist of low complexity
(looking at your phone to looking at your television), little information is lost. If one of the tasks is more
complex, even more information is lost during the shift. If both tasks are complex, even more information
is lost.
• All of the above are consistent with perceptual load theory; we can only attend to one stimulus/task at a
time because we cannot bear a greater perceptual load, and we cannot shift quickly between complex
tasks due to the perceptual load we already bear from the prior task.
Training Consciousness
Humans can engage in various activities to increase control over their attention and consciousness.
Meditation is the practice of calming the mind, stabilizing concentration, focusing attention, and enhancing
awareness of the present moment.
• These practices can be commonly traced back to various religions. Eastern religions particularly emphasize
various types of meditation, and some Abrahamic religions utilize meditation in forms of prayer.
• There are multiple kinds of meditation, and our book describes three of them:
• Mindful meditation consists of engaging oneself in the present moment in an attentive and nonjudgmental
way.
• Kabat-Zinn popularized the use of mindful meditation in the West, combining Buddhist principles with
scientific study. He developed Mindfulness-based Stress Reduction, which has been shown to be an
efficacious treatment for numerous psychiatric disorders.
• Mindful meditation has been demonstrated to improve quality of life, physical and mental health, and
attention.
• Lovingkindness and compassion meditations aim to help individuals engender feelings of empathy for
themselves and others, and are related to increased well-being, increased prosocial behaviors, and
decreased negative behaviors/attitudes.
• Contemplative neuroscience is the study of the neurological/biological effects of meditation and related states.
Studies of meditation have found that meditation is related to increased cortical thickness, changes in the shape
of various brain areas, and increased cognitive functioning.
 Sleep
Although we appear to be unresponsive and unalert
during sleep, there are actually various stimuli we
are aware of and receptive while sleeping.
Sleep is partially controlled by circadian rhythms,
which are variations in physiological processes that
cycle within an approximately 24-hour period.
• The suprachiasmatic nucleus is the part of the
brain that affects circadian rhythms.
• Circadian rhythms affect body temperature and
melatonin output, which in turn affect sleep.
The other process that controls sleep is homeostatic
drive, also known as sleep pressure. This consists of
the length of time that we are awake.
 Stages of Sleep
There are 2 types of sleep, which are divided into four stages. The first type of sleep is non-REM sleep, and this type of
sleep consists of few eye movements. This sleep is divided into three states: N1, N2, and N3.
• When we are very awake and alert, our brain demonstrates patterns of activity called beta waves, which are rapid,
low-energy waves.
• When we become drowsy, our brain displays alpha waves, which are slower, higher-energy waves.
• When we finally enter the first stage of sleep, N1, our brain displays theta waves. These waves are slower, lower-
energy waves.
• As we transition into N2, we still exhibit theta waves; however, we also exhibit sleep spindles and K-complexes,
which are brief spikes of energy.
• After N2, we enter N3, which is made up of delta waves. Delta waves are higher-energy than theta waves, but they
are less rapid. Sleep spindles and K-complexes at first continue into N3, but eventually cease during this phase.
 Stages of Sleep
• After spending some time in N3, we begin ascending back to N2 and N1, finally reaching our first period of rapid-
eye-movement sleep (REM). During REM, our eyes make quick movements, and it is believed that this stage of
sleep is associated with dreaming. Our brain still exhibits delta waves during this time.

As we continue to sleep, we will (generally) cycle down to N3 one more time, and then cycle back up to REM. Our next
few cycles become less deep, only reaching N2 and N1 in later forms of sleep. After REM, it is common to wake up
momentarily before falling back to sleep and re-entering the sleep cycle.
Sleep over the lifespan
As we get older, we typically need less sleep than we
needed compared to when we were younger.
Contrary to popular thought, elderly individuals
often need less sleep than younger adults.
The most sleep occurs during infancy, with infants
spending 8 hours a day in NREM and 8 hours in REM.
This sleep pattern does not occur all at once like in
adolescents and adults, however.
The amount of sleep needed at a given age directly
corresponds to the brain plasticity and neural growth
during that age (thus, infants through adolescents
tend to need more sleep than adults.
 Sleep Function and Deprivation
During sleep, many processes that help restore the The average adult aged 18 to late-30’s requires 7-9 hours
nervous system occur. Such processes include: of sleep. Typically, the rule of thumb is to get 8 hours of
• Neurogenesis sleep a night, but some people need less while others
• Glial cells clean up metabolic waste. need more.
• Memory consolidation occurs, aiding in learning.
• Myelination (the process of the glial cells supplying When we get less than our required amount of sleep, we
myelin sheaths to the neurons) accrue what is called sleep debt. In some ways, sleep
• Protection against cellular damage (the longer an debt can be paid off by sleeping extra the next day.
individual is awake, the more strain there is put on When this occurs, we experience REM rebound, which is
the neurons). when experience more REM sleep than typical.
• Synaptic pruning occurs, which allows us to better
remember various things learned throughout the day. If sleep debt does not get paid off, we may experience
periods of microsleep, as well as cell strain and death.
Sleep also helps remedy muscles and tissues outside of
the nervous system. Sleep debt often is not repaid in increments of additional
sleep, and instead is repaid in terms of poorer
performance and increased difficulty regulating mood.
 Sleep Disorders
The DSM-5 lists numerous sleep disorders, but only a few are
discussed in our book.
• Insomnia is characterized by difficulty falling and staying
asleep. Hypersomnia, on the other hand, consists of
spending more time sleeping than is desire. In both cases,
quality of sleep is poor, and the individual tends to feel
poorly rested during the day.
• Sleepwalking is characterized by the individual engaging in
activities they would engage in while awake, such walking,
eating, etc. This typically occurs during non-REM sleep.
• Narcolepsy is characterized by daytime sleepiness,
cataplexy (weakness in limbs), and sleep attacks (rapid
onset of sleep).
• Sleep apnea is characterized by pauses in breathing during
sleep, often resulting in poor sleep quality.
• Night terrors are characterized by a sudden awakening,
often including flailing, yelling, and a feeling of terror.
These often occur during non-REM sleep and are unrelated
to dreaming. This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY
 Dreaming
Dreams are the experience of images, thoughts, and feelings experienced during sleep.
While we often think of dreams as being visual in nature, dreams during non-REM sleep may be similar to the
verbal thoughts we have while awake.
There are three psychological theories of dreams, although there are many more folk interpretations of
dreams in different cultures. The three theories that psychologists may ascribe to are the psychoanalytic
theory, the biological theory, and the cognitive theory.
• The psychoanalytic theory holds that dreams operate on two separate levels: the manifest level and the
intent level.
• The manifest level is the surface level of dreams that can be recalled when we wake up.
• The latent level is the deeper, unconscious level of dreams where the meaning of the dream is found.
• The biological theory holds that dreams are a result of random brain activation. AIM theory is a type of
biological theory that states that consciousness is based on three dimensions: activation, input, and mode.
• Activation refers to how much neural activity is occurring at a given time.
• Input refers to where the stimulus is coming from (internal or external).
• Mode refers to mental state, such as being awake or dreaming.
• The cognitive theory holds that dreams are similar to everyday thinking, as both include processes such as
imagining, verbal processing, memory, problem-solving, etc.
 Hypnosis
Hypnosis is a state characterized by focused attention, heightened suggestibility, absorption, lack of voluntary
control, and suspension of critical/cognitive faculties.

Hypnosis is a relatively controversial field, due to its relationship with psychodynamic therapy, the way it is
depicted in popular media, and its history of being claimed to have therapeutic effects when it does not.

Hypnosis is demonstrated to have effects on altering consciousness, easing pain in certain circumstances, and
relaxing the body and mind, but there is contention regarding its effects on actually easing psychopathology or
changing behavior.

Some people are highly hypnotizable, some are only moderately hypnotizable, and some are completely
resistant to hypnosis. This has lead to a movement to think of hypnotizability as a trait rather than a state.

Raz et al. have found that individuals who are hypnotized do not experience the Stroop effect, which is a delay
in reaction time when we attempt to state the color of a word as opposed to what the word actually says.
They corroborated this with fMRI evidence, noting that highly hypnotizable people in their study had reduced
activity in the part of the brain that is related to word recognition.
 Drugs When individuals become dependent on
Psychoactive drugs are substances that reliably drugs, they may experience withdrawal
produce qualitative changes in conscious symptoms when they stop using a drug. These
experience when they are consumed. symptoms may include tremors, sweating,
hypersensitivity, irritability, seizures, insomnia,
Throughout the world, people have used drugs nausea, and cognitive difficulties. In more
for various reasons, including spiritual, severe cases, withdrawal may lead to organ
medicinal, recreational, and creative purposes. failure, hallucinations, or possibly death.

When regular use of drugs leads to dependence Addiction is a condition that results from
on that drug to maintain daily functioning, habitual use or physical and psychological
tolerance may occur. Tolerance is when an dependence on a substance. Addiction can
individual needs to consume increasing occur for various behaviors other than
amounts of drugs get the same effect. substance use, however.

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND

 Depressants
Depressants are a class of drugs that decrease or slow down central nervous system activity. Typically, these drugs
work by increasing the amount of GABA and decreasing the amount of glutamate in the brain.
• Alcohol is the most commonly used type of depressant.
• Alcohol is often thought of as being related to increased sociality and improved mood. This typically occurs
due to the depressant effects of GABA impacting the parts of the brain that regulate social interactions and
inhibitions.
• Alcohol is linked to numerous health hazards, including death/injury caused by accidents, sudden death,
liver disease, throat cancer, and brain damage (which leads to cognitive deficits).
• Binge-drinking is defined as 4 or 5 alcoholic drinks in the span of two hours.

• Sedatives is a class of drugs that includes barbiturates and benzodiazepines.

• Sedatives are prescribed as a means of slowing heart rate, relaxing muscles, and calming the mind.
• Sedatives are highly addictive, and it is illegal to use sedatives in ways other than prescribed.
• Sedatives interact with with alcohol, sometimes resulting in medical complications if taken together.

• Opioids and opiates are drugs that are prescribed as a means of reducing pain. Opioids are synthetically made
drugs, while opiates are partially synthetic, partially natural.
• Opioids/opiates are also highly addictive, and it is illegal to use these drugs without a prescription. Some
opioids/opiates (like heroin) are completely illegal to use in the US.
• Opioid/opiates slow heart rate and breathing, and it overdosing on opiates can result in death.
 Stimulants
Stimulants are a class of drugs that activate the
nervous system.
• The most commonly used stimulant is caffeine,
which is legal for all individuals to use in the US.
• Caffeine use is related to increased alertness,
increased heart rate, loss of motor
coordination, insomnia, anxiety, and
increased urination.
• Ceasing the use of caffeine may result in
withdrawal symptoms, such as headache,
fatigue, and difficulty concentrating.

• Nicotine is another commonly used stimulant,

and it is most often consumed by smoking
(although it can be consumed orally or nasally.
• Nicotine is highly addictive, and it is noted to
create high tolerance, resulting in withdrawal
symptoms.
• Smokers often find nicotine use to be
relaxing due to its effects on the autonomic
nervous system, which relax the muscles.
•
Stimulants
Cocaine is a stimulant that is illegal to use in 49 US states, with
exceptions for medical use.
• Cocaine is often related to feelings of euphoria caused by a
rush of dopamine and serotonin.
• Cocaine can cause increased heart rate, and when abused,
can lead to heart irregularities.
• Cocaine is often ingested nasally, although it can be injected
or smoked. All forms of cocaine are highly addictive.

• Amphetamines are synthetic drugs that have long-lasting effects

on the sympathetic nervous system.
• Amphetamines are often prescribed as a way of managing
ADHD; however, prescriptions may often be misused by
patients.
• Methamphetamine is commonly found as a street drug in a
crystalized form.

• MDMA, also known as ecstasy, is noted for causing euphoric

feelings and heightened tactile sensitivity.
• MDMA is being researched for therapeutic uses in PTSD.
• Frequent MDMA use is related to depression, cognitive
deficits, and impulsivity.
 Hallucinogens
Hallucinogens are a class of drugs that create distorted perceptions of reality, affect thought, and impact mood.
• Marijuana comes from the cannabis sativa plant. It is still illegal at a federal level, but many states are legalizing
marijuana for either recreational or medical uses.
• The active agent in marijuana is THC, which is a cannabinoid that attaches to endocannabinoid receptors in our
body. Endocannabinoids are marijuana-like substances that are naturally produced in our body. Continued use of
marijuana can result in reduced endocannabinoid production in the body, sometimes leading to craving and
addiction.
• There is research suggesting that marijuana use in adolescents may lead to onset of schizophrenia, attention
deficits, learning and memory deficits, slower processing speed.
• However, research has also demonstrated that marijuana has many medical uses, especially in treatment of chronic
pain and Alzheimer’s.

• LSD is a synthetic drug that is often used for its psychedelic qualities.
• LSD use is often associated with increased body temperature and blood pressure, hallucinations, and sometimes
insomnia and anxiety.
• LSD is believed to impact dopamine, serotonin, and glutamate in the body, resulting in its effects.
• Some research is being conducted on the use of “microdoses” of LSD for depression.

• Psilocybin is the active ingredient in hallucinogenic mushrooms (psilocybin itself is a type of bacteria that grows on the
mushroom).
• Psilocybin is believed to impact serotonin in the body.
• Research is being conducted regarding the use of psilocybin as a treatment for anxiety disorders.