RAYA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING

WELDING SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

(MaEng4192)

CHAPTER – TWO

WELDING PROCESSES

LECTURE DELIVERED BY: 1

ARC WELDING PROCESS
Arc welding process is fusion method of welding that utilizes the high intensity
of the arc generated by the flow of current to melt the work pieces.
A solid continuous joint is formed upon cooling.

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PRINCIPLE
The source of heat for arc welding process is an 'electric arc' generated between
two electrically conducting materials.
One of the work piece material called 'electrode' is connected to one pole of the
electric circuit, while the other work piece which forms the second conducting
material is connected to the other pole of the circuit.
 When the tip of the electrode material is brought in contact with the work piece
material and momentarily separated by small distance of 2-4 mm, an arc can be
generated.
 The electrical energy is thus converted to heat energy.
The high heat of the arc melts the edges of the work pieces.

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Coalescence takes place where the molten metal of the one work piece combines
with the molten metal of the other work piece.
 When the coalesced liquid solidifies, the two work pieces join together to form
a single component.
 The electrode material can be either a non-consumable material or a
Consumable material.
The non-consumable electrode made of tungsten, graphite etc., serve only to
strike the arc and is not consumed during the welding process.
Whereas, the consumable electrode which is made of the same material as that
of the work piece metal helps to strike the arc and at the same time melt (gets
consumed) and combines with the molten metal of the workpiece to form a
weld.

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 Arc Welding Process
AW Processes - Consumable AW Processes—Non consumable
Electrodes Electrodes
• Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW)
• Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)
• Plasma arc welding (PAW)
• Gas metal arc welding(GMAW)
• Resistance spot welding (RSW)
• Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW)
• Resistance Seam Welding (RSEW)
• oxyacetylene gas welding (EGW)
• Resistance projection welding (RPW)
• Submerged arc welding (SAW)
• Flash welding(FW)
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FLUX SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING ( SMAW)
a. Definition:
 It is an arc welding process wherein coalescence is produced by heating the
workpiece with an electric arc set up between a flux coated electrode and the
work piece.
The flux covering decomposes due to arc heat and performs many functions, like
arc stability, weld metal protection, etc.,
 The electrode itself melts and supplies the necessary filler metal.

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b. Principle of the process:
Heat required for welding is obtained from the arc struck between a coated
electrode and the work piece.
The arc temperature and thus the arc heat can be increased or decreased by
employing higher or lower arc currents.
 A high current arc with a smaller arc length produces very intense heat.
 The arc melts the electrode end and the job.
 Material droplets are transferred from the electrode to the job, through the arc,
and are deposited along the joint to be welded.
The flux coating melts, produces a gaseous shield and slag to prevent
atmospheric contamination of the molten weld metal.

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c. Striking the arc: is to establish a welding current across a gap between the
welding electrode and the base metal.
In manual metal arc welding (MMAW), arc between the electrode and the
workpiece is generally struck either by momentarily touching the electrode with
the workpiece and taking it (electrode) a predetermined distance away from the
work piece by the wrist motion or by the electrode on the job in the arc of a circle.
d. Electrode holder:
 It can hold the electrode at various angles and energizes it at the same time.
e. Welding the joint
 Once the arc has been established and the arc length adjusted, the electrode is
inclined to an, angle of approximately 20 degrees with the vertical.
To achieve comparatively deeper penetration, electrode angle with the vertical is
further reduced.
 The electrode is progressed along the joint at a constant speed, it is lowered, at the
same time, at a rate at which it is melting.
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f. Welding Equipment:
– AC or DC welding supply, electrode holder and welding cables.
– Welding electrodes.
• AC transformers and DC generators or rectifiers can be employed for welding with
covered electrodes.
• Both AC and DC power sources produce good quality welds, but depending upon
welding situation one may be preferred over the other.
• The most commonly used power source for AC welding is a transformer.
• A transformer may be operated from the mains on single phase, two phases or
three phases.
• A typical specification for the transformer is as follows:
– Current range up to 600 Amps.
– Open circuit voltage 70 to 100 volts.
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Advantages of Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
• SMAW is the simplest of all the arc welding processes.
• The equipment can be portable and the cost is fairly low.
• This process finds innumerable applications, because of the availability of a wide
variety of electrodes.
• A big range of metals and their alloys can be welded.
• Welding can be carried out in any position with highest weld quality.
Limitations
• In welding long joints (e.g., in pressure vessels), as one electrode finishes, the
weld is to be progressed with the next electrode. Unless properly cared, a defect
(like slag inclusion or insufficient penetration) may occur at the place where
welding is restarted with new electrode.

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• The process uses stick electrodes and thus it is slower as compared to MIG
welding.
• Because of flux coated electrodes, the chances of slag entrapment and other related-
defects are more as compared to MIG or TIG welding.
Applications
• Today, almost all the commonly employed metals and their alloys can be welded by this
process.
• Shielded metal arc welding is used both as a fabrication process and for maintenance
and repair jobs.
• The process finds applications in
– Air receiver, tank, boiler and pressure vessel fabrications;
– Shipbuilding;
– Pipes and Penstock joining;
– Building and Bridge construction;
– Automotive and Aircraft industry, etc. 11
A.C. Welding
1. At higher currents AC gives a smoother arc.
2. Once established the arc can be easily maintained and controlled.
3. It is suitable for welding thicker sections.
4. AC is easily available.
5. AC welding power source has no rotating parts.
6. It does not produce noise.
7. It occupies less space
8. It is less costly to purchase and maintain.
9. It possesses high efficiency (0.8).
10.It consumes less energy per unit weight of deposited metal.
11.An AC welding power source is Transformer
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D.C. Welding
1.DC arc is more stable.
2.DC is preferred for welding certain non-ferrous metals and alloys.
3.It has lower open circuit voltage and therefore is safer.
4.A DC welding equipment is a self contained unit. It can be operated in
fields where power supply is not available
5.DC welding power source is a transformer-rectifier unit or a DC generator
(motor or engine driven)

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• TUNGSTEN INERT GAS WELDING (TIG)
• Tungsten inert gas welding or gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) is a group of
welding process in which the work pieces are joined by the heat obtained from an
electric arc struck between a non-consumable tungsten electrode and the work
piece in the presence of an inert gas atmosphere.
• A filler metal may be added if required, during the welding process.

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Description
• TIG equipment consists of a welding torch in which a non-consumable
tungsten alloy electrode is held rigidly in the collet.
• The diameter of the electrode varies from 0.5 - 6.4 mm.
• TIG welding makes use of a shielding gas like argon or helium to protect
the welding area from atmospheric gases such as oxygen and nitrogen,
otherwise which may cause fusion defects and porosity in the weld metal.
• The shielding gas flow from the cylinder, through the passage in the
electrode holder and then imposes on the work piece.
• Pressure regulator and flow meters are used to regulate the pressure and
flow of gas from the cylinder.
• Either AC or DC can be used to supply the required current.

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Operation
• The work pieces to be joined are cleaned to remove dirt, grease and other oxides
chemically or mechanically to obtain a sound weld.
• The welding current and inert gas supply are turned ON.
• An arc is struck by touching the tip of the tungsten electrode with the workpiece
and instantaneously the electrode is separated from the workpiece by a small
distance of 1.5 - 3 mm such that the arc still remains between the electrode and the
workpiece.
• The high intensity of the arc melts the workpiece metal forming a small molten
metal pool.
• Filler metal in the form of a rod is added manually to the front end of the weld
pool.
• The deposited filler metal fills and bonds the joint to form a single piece of metal
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• The shielding gas is allowed to impinge on the solidifying weld pool for a few
seconds even after the arc is extinguished (shut off)
• This will avoid atmospheric contamination of the solidifying metal thereby
increasing the strength of the joint.
Advantages
• Suitable for thin metals.
• Clear visibility of the arc provides the operator to have a greater control over the
weld.
• Strong and high quality joints are obtained.
• No flux is used. Hence, no slag formation. This results in clean weld joints.

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Disadvantages
• TIG is the most difficult process compared to all the other welding processes.
The welder must maintain short arc length, avoid contact between electrode and
the workpiece and manually feed the filler metal with one hand while
manipulating the torch with the other hand.
• Tungsten material when gets transferred into the molten metal contaminates the
same leading to a hard and brittle joint.
• Skilled operator is required.
• Process is slower.
• Not suitable for thick metals.

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METAL INERT GAS (MIG) WELDING
• Metal inert gas welding or gas metal arc welding (GMAW) is a group of arc
welding process in which the workpieces are joined by the heat obtained from an
electric arc struck between a bare (uncoated) consumable electrode and the
workpiece in the presence of an inert gas atmosphere.
• The consumable electrode acts as a filler metal to fill the gap between the two
workpieces.

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Description
• The equipment consists of a welding torch in which a bare consumable
electrode in the form of a wire is held and guided by a guide tube.
• The electrode material used in MIG welding is of the same material or nearly
the same chemical composition as that of the base metal.
• Its diameter varies from 0.7 -2.4 mm.
• The electrode is fed continuously at a constant rate through feed rollers driven
by an electric motor.
• MIG makes use of shielding gas to prevent atmospheric contamination of the
molten weld pool.
• Mixture of argon and carbon dioxide in a order of 75% to 25% or 80% to 20%
is commonly used.

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• The shielding gas flow from the cylinder, through the passage in the electrode holder
and then impinges on the workpiece.
• AC is rarely used with MIG welding; instead DC is employed and the electrode is
positively charged. This results in faster melting of the electrode which increases
weld penetration and welding speed.
Operation
• The workpieces to be joined are cleaned to remove dust, grease and other oxides
chemically or mechanically to obtain a sound weld. The tip of the electrode is also
cleaned with a wire brush.
• The control switch provided in the welding torch is switched ON to initiate the
electric power, shielding gas and the wire (electrode) feed.
• An arc is struck by touching the tip of the electrode with the workpiece and
instantaneously the electrode is separated from the workpiece by a small distance of
1.5-3 mm such that the arc still remains between the electrode and the workpiece.
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• The high intensity of the arc melts the workpiece metal forming a small molten
pool.
• At the same time, the tip of the electrode also melts and combines with the
molten metal of the workpieces thereby filling the gap between the two
workpieces.
• The deposited metal upon solidification bonds the joint to form a single piece of
metal.
Advantages
• MIG welding is fast and economical.
• The electrode and inert gas are automatically fed, and this makes the operator
easy and to concentrate on the arc.
• Weld deposition rate is high due to the continuous wire feed
• No flux is used. Hence, no slag formation. This results in clean welds.
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• Thin and thick metals can be welded.
• Process can be automated.
Disadvantages
• Equipment is costlier
• Porosity (gas entrapment in weld pool) is the most common quality problem in
this process. However, extensive edge preparation can eliminate this defect.
SUBMERGED ARC WELDING (SAW)
• Submerged arc welding is a group of arc welding process in which the
workpieces are joined by the heat obtained from an electric arc struck between a
bare consumable electrode and work piece.
• The arc is struck beneath a covering layer of granulated flux.

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• Thus, the arc zone and the molten weld pool are protected from atmospheric
contamination by being 'submerged under a blanket of granular flux.
• This gives the name 'submerged arc welding' to the process.
• Figure shows the submerged arc welding process.

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Description
• The equipment consists of a welding head carrying a bare consumable electrode
and a flux tube.
• The flux tube remains ahead of the electrode, stores the granulated or powdered
flux, and drops the same on the joint to be welded.
• The flux shields and protects the molten weld metal from atmospheric
contamination.
• The electrode which is bare (uncoated) and in the form of wire is fed
continuously through feed rollers.
• The diameter of the electrode ranges from 1.6-8 mm and the electrode material
depends on the type of the work piece metal being welded.
• The process makes use of either AC or DC for supplying the required current.

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Operation
• Flux is deposited at the joint to be welded
• Welding current is switched ON.
• An arc is struck between the electrode and the work piece under the layer of
flux.
• The flux covers the arc thereby increasing the heat near the weld zone.
• This heat melts the filler metal and the work piece metal forming a molten weld
pool.
• At the same time, a portion of the flux melts and reacts with the molten weld
pool to form a slag.
• The slag floats on the surface providing thermal insulation to the molten metal
thereby allowing it to cool slowly.

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• The welding head is moved along the surface to be welded and the continuously
fed electrode completes the weld.
• The un-melted flux is collected by a suction pipe and reused.
• The layer of slag on the surface of the weld portion is chipped out and the weld
is finished.
• Since the weld pool is covered by flux, solidification of molten metal is slow.
Advantages
• High productivity process, due to high heat concentration.
• Weld deposition rate is high due to continuous wire feed.
• Deep weld penetration.
• Less smoke, as the flux hides the arc. Hence, improved working conditions.

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• Can be automated
• Process is best suitable for outdoor works and in areas with relatively high
winds.
• There is no chance of spatter of molten metal, as the arc is beneath the flux.
Disadvantages
• The invisible arc and the weld zone make the operator difficult to judge the
progress of welding.
• Use of powdered flux restricts the process to be carried only in flat positions.
• Slow cooling rates may lead to hot cracking defects.
• Need for extensive flux handling.

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 Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)
PLASMA ARC WELDING is a Welding Process where the Two Metal Work
Pieces are joined due to the Formation of an Arc between the Electrode and
the Work Pieces. The arc is basically produced from the Plasma Gas.
The Argon Gas Flows through the Welding Torch and when it comes in
contact with the current carrying Electrode it gets Ionized. This Ionized
Gas is called Plasma.
 Tungsten electrode is contained in a nozzle that focuses a high velocity
stream of inert gas (argon) into arc region to form a high velocity, intensely
hot plasma arc stream
Temperatures in PAW reach 28,000C (50,000F), due to constriction of
arc, producing a plasma jet of small diameter and very high energy density
It uses DC (DCEN) 32
Plasma Arc Welding

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Advantages and Disadvantages of PAW
Advantages:
Good arc stability and excellent weld quality
Better penetration control than other AW processes
High travel speeds
Can be used to weld almost any metals
Disadvantages:
High equipment cost
Larger torch size than other AW processes
Nozzle surrounding the electrode needs frequent replacement

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 Flux‑Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)
Flux cored arc welding (FCAW), also know as dual shield welding, is a semi-
automatic arc welding process that is similar to (MIG) welding.
FCAW employs very long continuous electrode. The electrode is tubular (hollow
cylinder) type.
Adaptation of shielded metal arc welding, to overcome limitations of stick electrodes -
two versions
Self‑shielded FCAW - core includes compounds that produce shielding gases
Gas‑shielded FCAW - uses externally applied shielding gases
Electrode is a continuous consumable tubing (in coils) containing flux and other
ingredients (e.g., alloying elements) in its core. Presence or absence of externally
supplied shielding gas
distinguishes: (1) self‑shielded - core provides ingredients for shielding, (2)
gas‑shielded - uses external shielding gases.
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Flux-Cored Arc Welding

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 Resistance Welding
 Resistance Welding is a pressure welding technique using high current and low
voltage
 The current passing through the two overlapping workpieces causes local
heating and temperature of the metallic pieces raises to the fusion point due to
resistance offered by the work pieces to flow of current.
 Subsequent application of pressure results in permanent joining of the
workpieces by the formation of weld without the use of filler material
 Workpieces are placed between two rods or wheels(rolls), which serve as
conductor for producing welds
 AC electric current is supplied through copper electrodes or rolls connected to
the secondary coil of a welding transformer.
It is used for welding thin sheets of similar metallic materials

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 Resistance Welding (RW)
A group of fusion welding processes that use a combination of heat and pressure
to accomplish coalescence.
There are two types of resistance welding
1.Spot welding
2. Seam welding

1.Spot welding
 Heat requires for welding generated by the
resistance to the flow of current through
the electrode.
 spot welding also known as Resistance
spot welding
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Components in Resistance Spot Welding
Parts to be welded (usually sheet metal)

Two opposing electrodes

Means of applying pressure to squeeze parts between electrodes

Power supply from which a controlled current can be applied for a

specified time duration

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 Advantages and Drawbacks of Resistance spot Welding
Advantages:
No filler metal required
High production rates possible
Lends itself to mechanization and automation
Lower operator skill level than for arc welding
Good repeatability and reliability
Low and fumes generated
Disadvantages:
High initial equipment cost
Limited to lap joints for most RW processes

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 Application of Resistance Spot Welding (RSW)
Resistance welding process in which fusion of faying surfaces of a lap joint is
achieved at one location by opposing electrodes.
Used to join sheet metal parts
Widely used in mass production of automobiles, metal furniture, appliances,
and other sheet metal products
Typical car body has ~ 10,000 spot welds
Annual production of automobiles in the world is measured in tens of
millions of units

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 Spot Welding Cycle
(a) Spot welding cycle
(1) parts inserted between electrodes,
(2) electrodes close,
 (3) current on,
(4) current off,
(5) electrodes opened

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 2.Resistance Seam Welding (RSEW)
 Seam welding is the work piece supports both side by roller electrodes.
 The continuous spot welding is known as seam welding
Uses rotating wheel electrodes to produce a series of overlapping spot welds
along lap joint
Can produce air‑tight joints
Applications:
Gasoline tanks
Automobile mufflers
Various sheet metal containers

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Resistance Seam Welding

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 Resistance Projection Welding (RPW)
A resistance welding process in which coalescence occurs at one or more small
contact points on the parts
Contact points determined by design of parts to be joined
May consist of projections, embossments, or localized intersections of parts
(1) Start of operation, contact between parts is at projections; (2) when
current is applied, weld nuggets similar to spot welding are formed at the
projections

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• Resistance Butt Welding
It is of two types
1. Upset welding
2. Flash welding

Upset Butt Welding

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 Resistance Butt Welding (UW)

Upset Welding is used to join the pieces end to end

 The process is best suited to rods , pipes and many other parts of uniform cross
section.
 in upset butt welding , the parts are clamped and brought in solid contact and
current is applied so that the heat is generated through the contact areas of the
parts.
 Butt welding is used for welding small parts. The process is highly productive
and clean.

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Flash Welding (FW)
 The two parts are brought together and the power supply is switched on.
 As the parts are moved closer , flashing or arcing raises the temperature
of the parts to a welding temperature.
 Now power is switched off and two parts are rapidly pressed (forced) together
causing a small upset. This squeezes out liquid metal and oxides , formed on
the joint surfaces and the two parts are welded together.
 Thick pipes, ends of band saws, frames, aircraft landing gears are produced
by Flash Welding.

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Oxyfuel Gas Welding (OFW)
Group of fusion welding operations that burn various fuels mixed with
oxygen
OFW employs several types of gases, which is the primary distinction
among the members of this group
Oxyfuel gas is also used in flame cutting torches to cut and separate
metal plates and other parts
Most important OFW process is oxyacetylene welding

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Oxyacetylene Welding (OAW)
Fusion welding performed by a high temperature flame from combustion of
acetylene and oxygen
Flame is directed by a welding torch
Filler metal is sometimes added
Composition must be similar to base metal
Filler rod often coated with flux to clean surfaces and prevent
oxidation

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Oxyacetylene Welding

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Acetylene (C2H2)
Most popular fuel among OFW group because it is capable of higher
temperatures than any other
Up to 3480C (6300F)
Two stage reaction of acetylene and oxygen:
First stage reaction (inner cone of flame)
C2H2 + O2  2CO + H2 + heat
Second stage reaction (outer envelope)
2CO + H2 + 1.5O2  2CO2 + H2O + heat

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 Oxyacetylene Torch
Maximum temperature reached at tip of inner cone, while outer envelope spreads

out and shields work surface from atmosphere.

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Types of flame
Oxygen is turned on, flame immediately changes into a long white inner
area (Feather) surrounded by a transparent blue envelope is called
Carburizing flame or Reducing flame (30000c)
It is used to melt low-melting-point metals and alloys because it does not
oxidize or corrode the metals
Addition of little more oxygen give a bright whitish cone surrounded by
the transparent blue envelope is called Neutral flame (It has a balance of
fuel gas and oxygen) (32000c).
Neutral flame is the hottest one possible and is the proper adjustment
for welding.
Used for welding steels, aluminium, copper and cast iron

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Cont..
If more oxygen is added, the cone becomes darker and more
pointed, while the envelope becomes shorter and more fierce is
called Oxidizing flame
Has the highest temperature about 34000c
Oxidizing flame that can cause corrosion in the metal. It is only
used for cutting flames or burning pieces of metal from a piece of
stock.

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Safety Issue in OAW
Together, acetylene and oxygen are highly flammable
C2H2 is colorless and odorless
It is therefore processed to have characteristic garlic odor

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 Newer Welding
a. Electron-Beam Welding (EBW)
In EBW, developed in 1960s, the heat used for welding
the two materials is generated by
high velocity narrow-beam (concentrated) electrons is
fired through the work, this transfers kinetic energy to
the particles of metal causing them to heat up and melt to
form a weld.
EBW process requires special equipment to focus the
beam on the work piece, typically in a vacuum.
The higher the vacuum, the more the beam penetrates,
and the greater the depth-to-width ratio can be achieved.

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61
 Some characteristics of EBW
In aircraft industry alloy grade Ti is used. Electron Beam
Welding (EBW) is extensively employed. TIG welding is
adopted only in a few cases.
Much better joints can be obtained by EBW of alloy grade
Ti. By welding in a vacuum chamber, gas absorption is
prevented.
The HAZ is very narrow and influence of welding on
structure.
Complicated work-pieces can be welded without distortion.
Components with large wall thickness as well as thin
walled components can also be successfully welded

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 Advantages of EBW
Narrow welds can be made on thicker sections with
deeper penetration with minimal thermal disturbances.
This makes the process suitable for welding in titanium,
niobium, tungsten, tantalum, beryllium, nickel alloys and
magnesium, mostly in aerospace and space research sectors.
Because welding is performed in a vacuum, there is no
atmospheric contamination; accurate control of welding
parameters is possible by controlling the electron beam
power and accurate beam focus.
Excellent welds can be made even on more reactive metals.
Lack of thermal disturbance in the process means that there
is minimum shrinkage and distortion.
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 Limitations of EBW
The process usually takes place in a vacuum; this means
that the work piece must be setup in a vacuum chamber
which then must be evacuated before the welding can take
place This can be time consuming.
The work force must be protected while the system is in
process due to the radiation which is generated by the
electrons impacting with the work piece.
Electron beam equipment is very expensive compared to
conventional welding equipment.
If welding in a vacuum the size of the material to weld must
be smaller than that of the vacuum chamber, meaning larger
and more expensive.
The pumps required to remove the air from the vacuum
chamber completely are expensive. 64
 b. Laser Beam Welding (LBW)
LBW utilizes a high-power laser beam as the source of heat, to
produce a fusion weld.
Because the beam can be focused on to a very small area, it has high
energy density and deep-penetrating capability

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 Advantages of LBW

LBW produces welds of good quality with minimum shrinkage

and distortion
Laser welds have good strength, generally low hardness (ductile)
and free of porosity
The process can be automated
Narrow welding seam
Low energy input per seam length
Reduced heat affected zone (HAZ)
Very high welding speed (ranges from 2.5 m/min to as high as 80
m/min)

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 Brazing
Brazing is a metal-joining process in which two or more metal items are
joined by melting and flowing a filler metal into the joint, with the filler
metal having a lower melting point than the adjoining metal.
The filler metal or alloy is heated to its melting temperature above 450 °C.
It is then distributed in liquid form between two or more close-fitting parts by
capillary action.
The filler metal is then brought slightly above its melting temperature.
 It then interacts with a thin layer of the base metal (known as wetting) and is
then cooled quickly.
Brazing differs from welding in that it does not involve melting the work
pieces only the filler metal is melted.
Brazed joints are generally stronger than the individual filler metals that have
been used to make them.
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 Advantages of brazing
It's easy to learn.

You can join virtually any dissimilar metals.

The bond line can be very neat in appearance.

 Joint strength is strong enough for most non-heavy-duty use

applications.

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 Disadvantages of brazing
A badly brazed joint looks similar to a good joint, and can have a Very low

strength.
The metal used to bond the two parts may be different in color than the parts

being bonded. This may or may not be a problem.

Long-term effects of dissimilar metals in constant contact may need to be

examined for special applications.

Since the filler material (typically bronze) melts at a relatively low temperature,

brazed parts may not be put in an environment which exceeds the melting point
of the filler metal. 69
 Soldering
Soldering is a process in which two or more metals are joined together by
melting and flowing a filler metal into the joint, the filler metal having a
relatively low melting point. Soft soldering is characterized by the melting
point of the filler metal, which is below 400 °C.
The filler metal used in the process is called solder.
Soldering is distinguished from brazing as the filler metal used has a lower
melting point.
Soldering is normally done by melting the solder with a soldering iron and
applying it to the two metals that are going to be joined together.

70
 Advantages of soldering
Low power is required;
Low process temperature;
No thermal distortions and residual stresses in the joint
parts;
Microstructure is not affected by heat;
Easily automated process;
Dissimilar materials may be joined;
High variety of materials may be joined;
Thin wall parts may be joined;
Moderate skill of the operator is required.

71
 Disadvantages of soldering
• Careful removal of the flux residuals is required in order
to prevent corrosion;
Large sections cannot be joined;
Fluxes may contain toxic components;
Soldering joints can not be used in high temperature
applications;
Low strength of joints.

72
73
 Weld Quality
Also concerned with the methods of inspecting and testing the joint to
assure its quality
1) Residual Stresses & Distortion
Residual stresses are stresses cause distortion and warpage(is any
distortion from the intended shape of an object).
The figure bellow refers :
(a) Butt welding two plates
(b) Shrinkage
(c) Residual stress patterns
(d) Likely warping of
weldment
74
Weld distortion is due to solidification shrinkage and thermal contraction
of the weld metal during welding.

75
 Angular distortion
Angular distortion is the angular change in relative positions of
members extending from a weld area.
The weld tends to be wider at the top than the bottom, causing more
solidification shrinkage and thermal contraction.
There are several techniques used to reduce angular distortion.
 Reducing volume of weld metal
 Placing welds around neutral

Reducing volume of weld metal and by using single-pass

deep penetration welding.
76
 Techniques to Minimize Warpage
Heat sinks to rapidly remove heat
Selection of welding conditions (speed, amount of
filler metal used, etc.) to reduce warpage
Stress relief heat treatment of welded assembly
Proper design of weldment

77
 WELDING DEFECTS

4/12/2015
 WHAT IS A WELDING DEFECT ?

The defects in the weld can be defined as irregularities in the weld metal
which is produced due to incorrect welding parameters or wrong
welding procedures or wrong combination of filler metal and parent
metal. It can simply be defined as:

“Defects introduced during welding beyond the acceptance limit that can cause a
weld to fail”.
A defect does not allow the finished joint to withstand the required
strength (load).
 PRESENCE OF WELDING DEFECTS ACTION
What should be done when welding-defects are
detected ?
One should reject the items and put them temporarily on hold.
One should determine the cause and try to implement a corrective action to avoid
future reoccurrence.
Then an authorized professional should determine, if the defects are repairable
or not.
If yes, by which procedure. Standard procedures may be approved for routine
application.
 CLASSIFICATION OF WELDING DEFECTS
welding defects classified into six groups according to their
appearance.-

Crack- includes all types of cracks such as

crater cracks, hot cracks, cold cracks, etc

Cavity- includes blow holes, porosities, shrinkage,

pipes, etc

Incomplete fusion & penetration- includes lack of

fusion, lack of penetration, etc
CLASSIFICATION OF WELDING DEFECTS
Solid inclusion- includes slag, metal oxides,
tungsten, etc
Imperfect shape -under cut, under fill, over lap,
excessive penetration, improper bead shape, etc
Miscellaneous defects – includes arc
strike, excessive spatter, rough
surface, uneven ripples, etc
 All these defects fall under two categories-
 Visual defect /Surface weld defect/External defect
– surface cracks
– over laps
– under cuts
– under fills
– excessive penetration
– surface porosity
– excessive spatter
– Arc strike, etc
 Hi dden defect/sub surface weld defect/Internal
defect
– lack of fusion
– lack of penetration
– sub surface blow holes/
– porosity
– shrinkage cavity
slag inclusion
-Tungsten inclusion, etc. 22
 CRACKS
• IS a hair line separation in the Base Metal)-or
WM(Weld Metal), or in the HAZ(hot area near weld metal)
• May appear:
– at the root or
– middle or
– In the crater
– surface or
– subsurface
• Is the Most dangerous of all defects
• Occurs in the WM(weld metal) when localized stresses
exceed the UTS(ultimate tensile stress) of material.
• May be of microscopic or macroscopic sizes.
23
 CRACKS
Long crack in HAZ Long crack in weld metal
parallel to weld bead running through centre of
the weld

24
 CRACKS
Cause (reasons to happen a crack
• Poor ductility of base metal
• High C & S- content of BM/WM
• High contraction stresses
• Electrode with high hydrogen content
Remedy (solution):-
• Pre- heating M transvethe rse weld crack
running across weld
• ratio: 18 min. bead
• Use low H₂ electrode
• Avoid rapid cooling
Classification:-
Cracks may be grouped mainly into
two categories-
– Hot crack transverse base metal crack
– Cold crack generally in high strength
steel 25
 1, HOT CRACKS
Is a Crack in the weld that occurs just after the welds are completed
•
and some- times while the welds are being made.
 Develops at high temperatures
–
 Propagates between the grains of the material
–
(intercrystalline)
–
 Occurs in the weld metal(solidification crack) & sometimes in
HAZ( liquation crack)

“solidification crack ” (weld metal)

• “liquation crack” (HAZ)
•
26
 HOT CRACKS
Cause:-
• High residual (excessive) stresses in weld metal
• Low weld ductility
• Too high welding current
• High thickness of work piece (thicker the work
piece, faster the cooling rate)
• high ratio of S &P with low Mn content, high C (high
& Ni content harden ability
 HOT CRACKS
Prevention:
• Controlling composition of the metal
(S<0.007%) to be welded
• Using filler metal with proper composition &
low tensile strength
• Pre- heat
• reduces rate of cooling

Repair:
Remove and re-weld
• 28
 2, COLD CRACK
• Occurs after 0the metal0 has completely solidified
(at temp -100 C to 200 C)
• Can occur several days after weld
• Occurs in C-steel, low & high alloy steel
– propagates both between grains and through
grains.
– often associated with non-metallic inclusion
(elongated MnS).
– occurs in both weld metal and HAZ but
generally in HAZ
 COLD CRACK
Cause-
• Hydrogen pick up during welding
– Source of hydrogen:-
• Moisture in base metal & welding electrodes
• Surface contaminated with organic substances
• Surrounding atmospheres
• Controlling welding parameters:-
proper pre-heating:
– reduces diffusion of H2
• – ensures no moisture
•Post-welding treatment:
– stress relief.

•
31
 COLD CRACK
• Clean joint from rust
• Use proper welding processes and
consumables:
– Low strength filler metals.
– Use low hydrogen type baked electrode
Repair:
– and reweld.
Remove

32
 POROSITIES/BLOW HOLES
“Porosity is a group of small voids, where as blow holes are
comparatively bigger hole or cavity caused by entrapment of
gases [gases:H2,CO,CO2,N2 &O2 from coating ingredients in the
electrode or moisture, oil, grease, rust, etc on BM] within the
solidified weld”.
Porosity can occur on or just below the surface of a weld.
Porosity in the weld and HAZ may lead
cracking.
•
35
 BLOW HOLES / POROSITIES
Cause: Prevention:
• Work piece or electrode
• Preheat
contains/contaminated with:-
– High sulphur & carbon
• Maintain proper arc
– Excessive moisture, rust length
scale, oil, grease, etc or • Use low hydrogen
• Atmospheric gases [N2, electrode
excessive O2 (Al- • Use
welding)] recommended &
• Anodising coating on Al procedure for
(contains moisture) • baking storing
Clean joint surfaces &
electrodes
adjacent surfaces
• Long arc
• Fast solidification rate

37
 UNDER CUT
“A defect that appears as a groove
formed
in the BM adjacent to the toe of a weld
along the edge of the weld & left unfilled
by the weld metal”.
• Generally located parallel to the junction of
weld metal & base metal at the toe or root
of the weld
• Reduces the cross-sectional thickness of
the base metal
38
UNDER CUT

39
 UNDER CUT
Cause:
• High welding current & arc voltage
• Too large electrode dia
•
• Incorrect electrode angle
Longer arc length
Prevention:
• Use prescribed welding current for electrode
size.
• Adjust electrode angle to fill undercut area.
• Correct travel speed, arc length, etc.
Repair:
• Gouge & weld with low hydrogen
electrode
40
 OVER LAPS
“An imperfection at the toe of
weld caused by over flow of
weld metal on the surface of
parent metal without fusion” Over laps
(protruded weld metal beyond
the toe)
•
Tends to produce mechanical
notch
•
Starts a crack at the sharp
point
where the weld metal and
base
metal come together at the 41
over-lapped surface
 OVER LAPS
Cause:-

– Too large deposition in a single run

– Longer arc
– slow arc travel speed.
Prevention:
– Proper welding technique
– Use proper size of electrode
Repair:
– Overlap must be removed blend smoothly
tointo the base metal 42
 LACK OF PENETRATION

“Improper penetration of weld metal

through the thickness of joint or weld metal
not extending to the required depth into the
joint root”

43
 LACK OF PENETRATION
Cause –
• high welding speed
• Low heat input
• Too large electrode dia
• Prevention:
Proper joint preparation
• Proper heat input & welding
• speed Use suitable size of
• electrode Repair:
Back gouge and back weld or
• remove and reweld.
 LACK OF FUSION
“Lack of complete melting/
fusion of some portion of
the weld metal in a joint”
• May be at the root, sides
or between two runs.
• Reduces the strength of
welds & makes welded
structures unreliable

45
 LACK OF FUSION
Cause:
• Low welding current
• Excess welding speed
• Unfavourable heat input
Prevention:
• Maintain proper current welding speed
• &
Proper cleaning of each bead
Repair:
• Chipping back & re-welding
47
EXCESSIVE PENETRATION
“Weld metal lying outside the plane joining
the toes”
• Makes notches that create stress concentration.
• An economic waste
Cause :-
• Too wide a root gap
• Too high welding current
• Slow travel speeds
• Large size electrodes

48
EXCESSIVE PENETRATION
Prevention:
– Correct the root opening root face
and
– Reduce the wire-feed speed
Repair:-
– Remove and re-weld

49
 SPATTER
“Small globular metal drops /
particles thrown out during
welding & stick to the BM
• surfaces along
• its length”.
• Metal lost
Do not form a part of the weld.
Excessive spatters unacceptable.

6/06/2015 50
 SPATTER
Cause –
– Excessive arc current
– Excessive long arc
– Improper shielding gas
– Electrodes coated with improper flux ingredients

Prevention:
– Correct welding current for type & size electrode used.
– Correct proper arc length & use correct arc voltage
– Spatter cure SC-07(Non-toxic, non- pollutant, water
based inorganic anti–spatter flux)
– can easily be removed either by hair brush or by
washing.
Repair: remove by grinding or sanding.
 INCLUSION
“Metallic or nonmetallic solid material
entrapped within the WM, between weld
passes or
• between WM & BM”.
May be in the form of slag or any other foreign material,
which does not get a chance to float on the surface of
• the solidifying WM
• H₂: the most undesirable inclusion (causing: cold crack)
• Lowers the strength of joint & make it weaker
Non- metallic
– Most inclusion:-
dangerous
– May be sulphide, oxide, silicate or aluminate type
– Acts as stress raiser
• Slag inclusions are elongated or globular pockets of
metallic oxides and other solid compounds.
 INCLUSION
Possible causes for slag
inclusion:
– Inadequate cleaning of weld metal between
passes
– Rapid rate of welding
– Too large electrode
– improper current
– Long arcs
Prevention:
– Maintain proper current & heat input
– Proper cleaning of
weld
Repair: 54

• chip back & re-weld

SHRINKAGE CAVITY or CONTRACTION
CAVITY
“A cavity formed by
shrinkage of weld
metal during its
solidification”.
– Seldom occurs

Shrinkage cavity 60
UNDERCUT
POROSITY
OVERLAP
SPATTER
POROSITY
POROSITY (BLOW HOLE)
SLAG INCLUSIONS
INCOMPLETE FUSION
INCOMPLETE JOINT PENETRATION
COLD CRACK
HOT CRACK
 Inspection and Testing Methods of welding

 Destructive testing
 Non- destructive testing
 Mechanical testing
 Visual
 Metallurgical testing
 Liquid Penetrant
Metallurgical tests - preparation of metallurgical
 Magnetic
specimens (e.g., photomicrographs) of weldment to
 Ultrasonic examine metallic structure, defects, extent and condition of
 Eddy Current heat affected zone, and similar phenomena. Metallurgical

 Radiographic testing testing is used to determine the appropriateness of a

particular metal for a given application.
122
 Non- destructive testing
Visual Inspection
•Most widely used welding inspection
method
Human inspector visually examines
for:
Cracks, cavities, incomplete
fusion, and other surface defects
Limitations:
Only surface defects are detectable
Welding inspector must also decide if
additional tests are warranted
123
 Ultrasonic Testing
 This technique is used for the detection of internal surface (particularly distant
surface) defects in sound conducting materials. In this method high frequency
sound waves are introduced into a material and they are reflected back from
surface and flaws. Reflected sound energy is displayed versus time.

 piezoelectric element is capable of acting as both a sensing and a transmitting

element. Piezoelectric transducers have been conventionally used to convert electric
signals into sound wave, or to convert sound wave into electric
124signals.
 RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING
 Radiographic Testing (RT), or industrial radiography, is a nondestructive
testing (NDT) method of inspecting materials for hidden flaws by using
the ability of short wavelength electromagnetic radiation (high energy
photons) to penetrate various materials. Either an X-ray machine or a
radioactive source (Ir-192, Co-60,or in rare cases Cs-137) can be used as
a source of photons
 This can see very different things from X-rays, because neutrons can
pass with ease through lead and steel but are stopped by plastics.

125
 MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING
 Magnetic particle Inspection (MPI) is a non destructive testing (NDT) process for
detecting surface and slightly sub-surface discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials
such as iron, nickel, cobalt, and some of their alloys.
 The process puts magnetic field into the part. The piece can be magnetized by direct or
indirect magnetization.
 The first step in a magnetic particle inspection is to magnetize the component that is to
be inspected. If any defects on or near the surface are present, the defects will create a
leakage field. The particles will be attracted and cluster at the flux leakage fields, thus
forming a visible indication that the inspector can detect.

126
 Eddy Current Testing
 This method is widely used to detect surface flaws, to measure thin walls
from one surface only, to measure thin coatings and in some applications
to measure depth. This method is applicable to electrically conductive
materials only. In this method eddy currents are produced in the product by
bringing it close to an alternating current carrying coil.
 The main applications of the eddy current technique are for the detection
of surface or subsurface flaws, conductivity measurement and coating
thickness measurement.

127
 Liquid Penetrant Testing
 A liquid with high surface wetting characteristics is applied to the surface
of the part and allowed time to seep into surface breaking defects
 The excess liquid is removed from the surface of the part
 A developer (powder) is applied to pull the trapped penetrant out the defect
and spread it on the surface where it can be seen.
 Liquid Penetrant Testing (LPT), also called Dye Penetrant Inspection (DPI)
and Penetrant Testing (PT), is widely used to detect surface defects in
castings, forging, welding, material cracks , porosities and possible fatigue
failure areas.

128
 Destructive Testing

Tests in which weld is destroyed either during testing or to prepare test

specimen
 Mechanical tests purpose is similar to conventional testing methods such
as tensile tests, shear tests, etc

129
 Mechanical Tests in Welding
(a) Tension-shear test, (b) fillet break test, (c) tension-shear of spot weld, and (
d) peel test for spot weld

130
 Weldability
• Is ability or Capacity of a metal to be welded into a suitable structure,
• Good weldability characterized by:
– Ease with which welding is accomplished
– Absence of weld defects
– Strength, ductility, and toughness in welded joint
Factors affecting Weldability on Welding Process
• Some metals can be welded by one process but are difficult to weld by
other process.
• Example: stainless steel readily welded by most AW processes, but difficult to weld
by OFW

131
 Factors affecting Weldability on Base
Metal
Some metals melt too easily; e.g., aluminum
Metals with high thermal conductivity transfer
heat away from weld, which causes problems; e.g.,
copper
High thermal expansion and contraction in metal
causes distortion problems
Dissimilar metals pose problems in welding when
their physical and/or mechanical properties are
substantially different

132
 Other Factors Affecting
Filler metal Weldability
 Must be compatible(relate) with base metal(s)
Surface conditions
 Moisture can result in porosity in fusion zone
 Oxides and other films on metal surfaces can prevent adequate contact
and fusion
 Design Considerations in Welding
1) Design for welding ‑ product should be designed from the start as a
welded assembly
2) Minimum parts ‑ welded assemblies should consist of fewest number of
parts possible
133