Applied Physics Unit 2

Download as pptx, pdf, or txt
Download as pptx, pdf, or txt
You are on page 1of 78

APPLIED PHYSICS

UNIT 2
Semiconductor Physics
Semiconductor Physics
Out line
• Classification of materials:
• Types of semiconductors
• Intrinsic semiconductor – Expression for carrier concentration
• Extrinsic semiconductor
• P type semiconductor - Expression for carrier concentration
• N type semiconductor - Expression for carrier concentration
• Direct Bandgap and Indirect Bandgap Semiconductors
• Diffusion current and Drift current
• PN Junction Diode - V- I characteristics
• Zener diode
• Hall Effect
Classification of materials
Based on band theory materials are classified into three types.
1. Conductors
2. Insulators
3. Semiconductors
Conductors
• Material that easily conducts electrical current.
• The best conductors are single-element material (e.g copper, silver, gold, aluminum)
• Only one valence electron very loosely bound to the atom- free electron.
• On increase of temperature the conductivity decreases.
Insulators
• material does not conduct electrical current
• valence electron are tightly bound to the atom
• On increase of temperature conducting property of insulators increases.
Semiconductors
• Material between conductors and insulators in its ability to conduct electric current
• In its pure (intrinsic) state is neither a good conductor nor a good insulator
• Most common semiconductor- silicon(Si), germanium(Ge) which Contains four valence
electrons.

•The resistivity of a semiconductor is in the order of 10-4 to 0.5 ohm cm.


• It acts as an insulator at absolute zero and as a conductor at high temperatures and
in the presence of impurities.
• A semiconductor is a solid which has the energy band similar to that of an insulator.
Energy Band Diagram
Structure of Silicon Atom

Silicon atom:

• Atomic number of Silicon is 14

• 4 valence electrons

• Electronic configuration of silicon- 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S2 3P2


2, 8, 4
Structure of Germanium Atom

Germanium atom:

• Atomic number of Germanium is 32


• 4 valence electrons
• Electronic configuration of Germanium –
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p2
2, 8, 18, 4
In both Ge and Si, the number of valence
electrons equal to 4
Types of Semiconductors
Intrinsic Semiconductors

A semiconductor in extremely pure form is called as intrinsic


semiconductor.
Example: Germanium and Silicon.

In both Ge and Si, the number of valence electrons equal to 4.


• An intrinsic crystal has no impurities.
Intrinsic semiconductor
A crystal purely made of silicon atoms.
There are no electrons in the conduction band. This condition
occurs only at a temperature of absolute 0 Kelvin.
P-type semiconductor
When a small amount of trivalent impurity (such as indium, Aluminium, boron or
gallium) is added to a pure semiconductor crystal, the resulting semiconductor
crystal is called p type semiconductor.
N-type semiconductor
When a small amount of pentavalent impurity such as Phosphorous is added to a pure
Silicon semiconductor crystal, the resulting crystal is called N type semiconductor.
CARRIER CONCENTRATION IN INTRINSIC
SEMICONDUCTORS
In an intrinsic semiconductor the number of holes is equal to the
number of free electrons.
At T = 0K, valence band is completely filled and conduction band is
completely empty. Thus the intrinsic semiconductor behaves as a perfect
insulator.
At T > 0K, the electron from the valence band shifted to conduction
band across the band gap.
Thus there are same number of free electrons and holes in intrinsic
semiconductor.
Fermi level lies in midway between conduction band and valance
band in intrinsic semiconductors.
Energy Band Diagram in an Intrinsic Semiconductor
Expression for electron concentration in an intrinsic semiconductor:

Density of electrons in the conduction band:

The number of electrons available in the energy range E to E + dE,

dn = F (E) Z (E) dE ----------(1)


Z(E) dE is the density of states, that is the number of energy states in
the energy range E and E + dE
F(E) is the Fermi function which gives the probability of finding a state
with energy E occupied by an electron.
Density of states Z(E)dE = dE ------(2)
Fermi function, F(E) =

F(E) = =

For all possible temperatures E-EF >>KT, so neglecting the term unity

F(E) = ------- (3)


From Eq’ns (1), (2) and (3)

dn = dE
Since E starts at the bottom of the conduction band Ec
Density of holes in valence band: .
Expression for intrinsic carrier concentration

We know that
Expression for Fermi level and its variation with temperature:
In an intrinsic semiconductor number of electrons in conduction
band is equal to the number of holes in valence band

Taking logarithms on both sides


Extrinsic semiconductors

Semiconducting materials in which the charge carriers are due to impurity atoms
are called extrinsic semiconductors.
They are obtained by doping an intrinsic semiconductor with impurity atoms.
 By adding impurity atoms to intrinsic Si or Ge to improve the conductivity of
the semiconductor
Based on the type of impurity added they are classified into two types
1. N - Type semiconductor
2. P - Type semiconductor
Extrinsic semiconductors

n-type material – a semiconductor that p-type material – a semiconductor that


has added pentavalent impurities has added trivalent impurities
pentavalent (5 valence e-) Trivalent (3 valence e-)
Pentavalent Impurites: Trivalent Impurities:
• Phosphorus (P) • Aluminum (Al)
• Arsenic (As) • Gallium (Ga)
• Antimony (Sb) • Boron (B)
• Bismuth (Bi) • Indium (In)
N - Type semiconductor:
N type semiconductor
• pentavalent impurity atoms like phosphorus,
arsenic, antimony etc. are doped.
• electrons are the majority charge carriers and
holes are minority charge carriers.
• Since electrons are donated in this type of
semiconductor the energy level of these donated
electrons is called donor energy level(Ed).

• Ed is very close to conduction band and hence


even at room temperature the electrons are
easily excited to conduction band.
• The current flow in this type of semiconductor is
due to electrons.
p type semiconductor P - Type semiconductor:
• trivalent impurity atoms like boron, gallium,
indium etc. are doped.
• holes are the majority charge carriers and
electrons are the minority charge carriers.
• Since the impurity can accept the electrons
this energy level is called acceptor energy
level (Ea)

• Ea is present just above the valence band.


• Here the current conduction is mainly due to
holes.
Extrinsic semiconductors
N -type semiconductor:
Pentavalent impurities are added to Si or Ge.
1 extra electrons becomes a conduction electrons because it is not attached to any
atom
No. of conduction electrons can be controlled by the no. of impurity atoms
Pentavalent atom gives up an electron -call a donor atom
Current carries in n-type are electrons – majority carriers
Holes – minority carriers (holes created when generation of electron-holes pair).

Sb
impurity
atom

Pentavalent impurity atom in a Si crystal


Expression for carrier concentration in N- type semiconductor
Let Nd be the donor concentration and Ed be the donor energy level. At very low temperatures all
donor levels are filled with electrons. As the temperature increases more and more donor atoms
get ionized and density of electrons in the conduction band increases.
Density of electrons in the conduction band is given by

The density of ionized donors is given by


At very low temperatures no thermal break down of covalent bonds takes place. Then the number of
electrons in the conduction band will be equal to the number of ionized donor atoms.

Taking logarithms on both sides,


At absolute temperature, at T = 0 k
Variation of Fermi level with temperature in an N type semiconductor

 With increase of temperature the Fermi-level


gradually moves towards the intrinsic Fermi level.
 At higher temperature intrinsic nature dominates.
 The shifting of Fermi level EF to intrinsic Fermi

level Ei is slow with higher donor concentration.


P-type semiconductor:
- Trivalent impurities are added to Si or Ge.
- Boron, indium and gallium have 3 valence e- form covalent bond with 4 adjacent silicon atom.
A hole created when each trivalent atom is added.
- The no. of holes can be controlled by the no. of trivalent impurity atoms
- The trivalent atom can take an electron- acceptor atom
- Current carriers in p-type are holes – majority carriers
- electrons – minority carriers (created during electron-holes pairs generation).

B
impurity
atom

Trivalent impurity atom in a Si crystal


Expression for carrier concentration in P –type semiconductor:

The valence band electrons move towards the acceptor level and occupy the vacant
acceptor levels resulting in holes in the valence band.

Density of holes in the valence band is given by

The density of ionized acceptors is given by


Variation of Fermi level with temperature in a P type
semiconductor:
• As the temperature increases the Fermi-level
gradually move towards intrinsic Fermi level.
• If the acceptor concentration is high, the rising
of the Fermi level to intrinsic level will be slow.
• At higher temperature intrinsic nature
dominates.
Differences between Extrinsic and Intrinsic semiconductor
Factors Intrinsic semiconductor Extrinsic semiconductor
Purity Pure semiconductor Impure semiconductor
Impurities No impurity Tri valent and penta valent
impurities
Density of electrons Density of electrons is equal to Density of electrons is not
the density of holes equal to the density of holes
Electrical Conductivity low high
Temperature effect Depends on temperature only Depends on temperature as
well as on the amount of
impurity atoms
Fermi level Lies between valence band Lies near valence band in p-
and conduction band type and near conduction band
in n-type.
Examples Si and Ge Si and Ge doped with Al, In, P,
As etc.
Direct and Indirect Band gap:
Direct bandgap semiconductors
Those materials for which maximum value of valence band and minimum
value of conduction band occur at the same value of momentum vector k,
called direct bandgap materials (i.e. satisfies the condition of energy and
momentum conservation). For example: GaAs, InP, CdS..etc

These materials are suitable for optical devices like LEDs

Indirect bandgap semiconductors

Those materials for which maximum of valence band and minimum of


conduction band do not occur at same value of momentum vector k, called
indirect bandgap materials. For example: Si and Ge
Indirect bandgap materials are not suitable for optical devices
(LEDs and Laser diodes)
Direct and indirect band gap semi conductors
Indirect Band gap semiconductor

1. In which the maximum energy level of the valence band and


minimum energy level of the conduction band are misaligned
with respect to momentum vector.

2. Due to relative difference in the momentum, first, the


momentum is conserved by release of energy and only after
the momenta align themselves, a recombination occurs
accompanied with the release of energy..

3. The probability of a radiative recombination is comparatively


low.

4. The efficiency factor is lower.

Ex. Silicon and Germanium


Direct Band gap semiconductor

1. In which the maximum energy level of the valence


band aligns with the minimum energy level of the
conduction band with respect to momentum.

2. Direct recombination takes place with the release of


the energy equal to the energy difference between the
recombining particles.

3. The probability of a radiative recombination is high.

4. The efficiency factor is higher.

5. For optical sources, direct band gap semiconductors


are preferred.

6. Ex. Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)


Diffusion and Drift Currents
Diffusion current is the current which is due to the transport of charges occurring
because of non-uniform concentration of charged particles in a semiconductor.

Drift current is due to the motion of charge carriers due to the force exerted
on them by an electric field.
The total current in a semiconductor is the sum of drift current and diffusion current.
The electron and hole current densities are given by,
Jn(total) = Jn Diffusion + Jn Drift

Jp(total) = Jp Diffusion + Jp Drift


Jn Diffusion = -e Dn
is the concentration gradient of electron
Dn is the electron diffusion constant
JpDiffusion = e Dp
is the concentration gradient of holes
Dp is the hole diffusion constant
Jn Drift = e μnn E
μn is the mobility of electrons and μp is the mobility of holes
Jp Drift = e μpp E
p is hole concentration and n is electron concentration

J (total) = Jn Diffusion + JnDrift + Jp Diffusion + JpDrift


P Type and N Type Semiconductors
PN JUNCTION DIODE
If we join p-type semiconductor with n-type semiconductor such that crystal
structure remains continuous at the boundary then junction formed in between them
is called PN junction. And the semiconductor device so formed is called as PN
Junction diode.
PN junction diode has two terminals, in p side it has anode and n side it has cathode.
In symbol, arrow head shows the direction of conventional current.
Formation of Depletion Layer
The p-n junction Diode
The Depletion Region
Forward Bias
In the forward bias condition, the negative terminal of the battery is
connected to the N-type material and the positive terminal of the battery is
connected to the P-Type material
Forward Bias:
The Effect of Forward bias on the Depletion Region

As more electrons flow into the depletion region, the no. of +ve ion is
reduced.
 As more holes flow into the depletion region on the other side of pn
junction, the no. of –ve ions is reduced.
 Reduction in +ve & -ve ions – causes the depletion region to narrow.
V-I Characteristics of PN Junction Diode in forward Bias
Reverse Bias
In the reverse bias condition, the positive terminal of the battery is connected to
the N-type material and the negative terminal of the battery is connected to the
P-type material.
Reverse Bias:

The Effect of Reverse bias on the Depletion Region

 + side of bias pulls the free electrons in the n-region away from pn junction cause add. +ve ions
are created, widening the depletion region.
 In the p-region, e- from – side of the voltage source enter as valence electrons e- and move
from hole to hole toward the depletion region, then created add. –ve ions.
 As the depletion region widens, the availability of majority carriers decrease.
V-I Characteristics of PN Junction Diode in Reverse Bias
I-V Characteristics of the P-N Junction Diode
Energy Diagram of a P-N Junction Diode:
Energy level Diagrams
Application of PN junction diode:
The diode finds number of applications:
• Rectification: The conversion of alternating current into direct current is known as
rectification. A p-n junction diode allows electric current when it is forward biased and
blocks electric current when it is reverse biased. This action of p-n junction diode
enables us to use it as a rectifier.
•Diodes are used in clamping circuits for DC restoration.
•Diodes are used in clipping circuits for wave shaping.
•Diodes are used in voltage multipliers.
•Diodes are used as switch in digital logic circuits used in
computers.
•Diodes are used in demodulation circuits.
•Laser diodes are used in optical communications.
•Light Emitting Diodes are used in digital displays.
•Diodes are used in voltage regulators.
Zener diode
A Zener diode is a specially designed, highly doped PN junction diode.
The Zener diode allows current to flow in the forward direction in the same
manner as an ideal diode.

It also permits current to flow in the reverse direction when the voltage is
above a certain value known as breakdown voltage.
Symbol of Zener diode
Zener diode:
The working principle of zener diode lies in the cause of breakdown for a diode
in reverse biased condition.

Normally there are two types of breakdown.

Zener breakdown

Avalanche breakdown
Working of diode
Circuit symbol of Zener diode

V-I characteristics of Zener Diode


Zener breakdown occurs because
of the high electric field.

The avalanche breakdown occurs


because of the collision of free
electrons with electrons inside the
atoms.
1. Explain about intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors.
2. Derive the expression for concentration of electrons in n type extrinsic semiconductor.

You might also like