NEBOSH International General Certificate

in Occupational Safety and Health

Unit IG2

Element 10: Fire

© RRC International
 Learning Objectives
• Describe the principles of fire initiation, classification and spread.
• Describe the basic principles of fire prevention and the prevention
of fire spread in buildings.
• Describe the appropriate fire alarm system and fire-fighting
arrangements for a simple workplace.
• Describe the factors which should be considered when
implementing a successful fire evacuation of a workplace.
10.1 Fire Initiation, Classification and
Spread
 Principles of Fire
Fuel:
A combustible material or
substance consumed during the
combustion process.

Oxygen:
From the air (which is 21% oxygen)
or oxygen-rich substances (oxidising
agents).

Heat or ignition source:

Energy to start the combustion
process.
 Principles of Fire
Fire is a rapid chemical process in which oxygen combines
with another substance (‘fuel’) in the presence of a source
of heat.

This reaction is called combustion.

During this reaction, heat, flames and smoke are produced.

 Classification of Fire

This is the EU system.

There is no formal Class E. ‘Electrical fires’ is used for electrical equipment.
Principles of Heat Transmission and Fire Spread
• Direct burning.

• Convection:
‒ Inside.
‒ Outside.
• Conduction.

• Radiation.
Principles of Heat Transmission and Fire Spread
Convection Radiation

Conduction
 Group Exercise
Suggest common causes of fire in the workplace.
 Causes
• Electrical equipment.
• Deliberate ignition (arson).
• Hot work.
• Smoking.
• Cooking appliances.
• Heating appliances.
• Unsafe use and storage of flammable liquids and gases.
• Mechanical heat.
• Chemical reactions.
 Consequences
• People killed and injured.
• Damage to buildings and contents including smoke
damage.
• Environmental damage,
 End of Module 10.1 Exercise
1. What three things are needed for a fire to start?

2. What are the methods of fire spread?

3. Suggest common causes of workplace fire in an office.

10.2 Preventing Fire and Fire Spread
Control Measures to Minimise the Risk of Fire in a
Workplace
Control combustible and flammable materials:
• Solids, liquids, gases.

Control ignition sources:

• Systems of work, smoking, arson.

Use of electrical equipment in flammable

atmospheres:
• Hazardous area classification.

Systems of work:
• Hot processes, machinery, electrical equipment.

Good housekeeping:
• General tidiness, waste control and disposal.
 Control of Combustible and Flammable
Materials
• Eliminate use altogether.

• Substitute for lower risk.

• Minimise quantities:
‒ Stock control, housekeeping, waste management.

• Safe use and storage in protected, dedicated buildings.

 Control of Combustible and Flammable
Materials
• Should be stored outside.
• Storage area should be fenced with secure, lockable gate.
• Warning signs displayed.
• Ignition sources eliminated.
• Bottles chained upright.
• Separate from other buildings.
• Empty and full bottles separated.
• Oxygen bottles not be stored with LPG.
• Return to store immediately after use.
 Control of Ignition Sources
• Electrical equipment.

• Hot work.

• Smoking.

• Cooking and heating appliances.

• Mechanical heat.

• Deliberate ignition.
 Use of Electrical Equipment in Flammable
Atmospheres
• Flammable gas/vapour/dust mixed with air can be explosive.
• Electrical equipment can ignite the mixture.
• National legislation controls use of electrical equipment:
‒ In EU, the ATEX Directives.
‒ In UK, transposed as the Dangerous Substances and Explosive
Atmospheres Regulations 2002.
 Use of Electrical Equipment in Flammable
Atmospheres
• Zone 0 - a place in which an explosive atmosphere is present
continuously, or for long periods, or frequently.
• Zone 1 - a place in which an explosive atmosphere is likely to
occur in normal operation occasionally.
• Zone 2 - a place in which an explosive atmosphere is not
likely to occur in normal operation but, if it does occur, will
persist for a short period only.

There are corresponding standards for dust explosion hazards -

these are called Zone 20, Zone 21 and Zone 22.
Use of Electrical Equipment for in Flammable Atmospheres

Electrical Equipment Zone

Category 1 Zone 0 or Zone 20

Category 2 Zone 1 or Zone 21

Category 3 Zone 2 or Zone 22

 Systems of Work
Permit to work for control of hot work:
• Remove flammable materials from the area.
• Cover items that can’t be removed.
• Sweep the floor.
• Damp down wooden floors.
• Provide suitable fire extinguishers.
• Ensure ‘fire-watcher’ present in the area.
• Check area after work has finished.
 Good Housekeeping
• Waste-free.
• Tidy.
• Well-ordered.
• Pedestrian routes clear.
 Storage of Flammable Liquids
The flash point - the lowest temperature at which a liquid can form an
ignitable mixture in air (the vapour can be ignited by an external
ignition source but combustion is not sustained).

The lower the flash point, the easier it is to ignite the material.

Liquids are classified as:

• Flammable.
• Highly flammable.
• Extremely flammable.
 Storage of Flammable Liquids
• Category 3: ‘Flammable liquids’:
‒ Flash point 23oC - 60oC.
‒ Easily ignited with a heat source, e.g. a match.
‒ Maximum storage in work area: <250 litres.

• Category 2: ‘Highly flammable liquids’:

‒ Flash point <23°C.
‒ Boiling point >35°C.
‒ Maximum storage in work area: <50 litres.

• Category 1: ‘Extremely flammable liquids’:

‒ Flash point <23°C.
‒ Boiling point <35°C.
‒ Very easy to ignite at room temperature.
 Group Exercise
Consider the storage of flammable liquids, e.g. acetone,
petrol, etc.
Discuss safe storage arrangements if such substances were
used at work.
 Storage of Flammable Liquids
• Use the minimum volume of liquid required.

• Liquid should be in a properly labelled container.

• Ideally, the container will be metal with a self-closing lid.

• Use a metal tray to catch spills and have absorbent material
available.

• Use away from heat and ignition sources.

• Ensure that workspace is well-ventilated.

• Return containers to safe storage after use.

 Storage of Flammable Liquids
Small quantities:
• Use minimal quantities.
• Store sealed (lids on, or self-closing lid).
• Flammable cabinet:
‒ Fire resistant (metal).
‒ Lockable lid/doors.
‒ Clearly signed.
‒ Spill tray.

• Away from ignition sources.

 Storage of Flammable Liquids
Larger quantities:
• Purpose-built, single-storey flammables store, segregated chemicals.
• Built of non-combustible materials, lightweight roof for explosion relief.
• Built outdoors away from other buildings or having firewall protection.
• The store suitably fenced in a secure area.
• All electrical systems intrinsically safe, all other ignition sources eliminated.
• Store being well-ventilated at high and low levels.
• All access doors lockable with sill to contain spillages.
• Adequate fire-fighting equipment, suitable fire safety signs.
• Regular checks for security, safe storage of substances.
• Clear, safe access for fire service, adequate means of escape.
 Compartmentation
• Keeping fire and smoke in or out of area of building.
• Creating enclosed/sealed boxes using fire-resistant materials.
• Fire is contained in one part of the building.
• Only fully effective if openings in the compartment walls are
sealed.
• Local building regulations play a major part in applying high
standards of compartmentation to workplaces.
Properties of Common Building Materials
Concrete: Usually performs well in a fire.
Steel: Severely affected by high temperatures.
Brick: Usually very resistant.
Timber: Thin timber will burn quite quickly; thick timber will
survive for longer.

Surface treatment can improve fire performance:

• Encasing steel in concrete.
• Intumescent paint.
• Insulation.
• Wall coverings.
Properties of Common Building Materials

Insulation:
• Must be fire retardant.

Wall coverings:
• Can be flammable so need to be carefully selected.
 Protection of Openings and Voids
Openings:
• e.g. service conduits, air handling ducts.

Voids:
• e.g. stairwells, voids between floors, roof voids.

Protection:
• Self-closing shutters.
• Fire break walls.
• Procedure to seal any new openings, e.g. with fire-
retardant foam.
10.3 Fire Alarm Systems and Fire-Fighting
 Fire Detection and Alarm Systems
• Simplest system:
‒ Someone shouts ‘Fire!’

• Simple with more noise:

‒ Hand bell, whistle or air horn.

• Manually operated fire alarm:

‒ Manual call points.

• Interlinked smoke alarm:

‒ Links normally unoccupied rooms to interlinked smoke alarms.

• Automatic fire detection and alarm:

‒ Automatic detectors, manual call points, linked to sounders/lights.
The sophistication will depend on the complexity of workplace.
 Fire Detection and Alarm Systems
Smoke detectors:
• Detect small smoke particles.
• Very sensitive, early warning.
• Two main types: ionising and optical.
• Can give rise to false alarms.

Heat detectors:
• Detect excess heat generated by a fire.
• Less sensitive, later warning.
• Two main types: rate of rise and fixed temperature.
• May not detect fires that are giving off smoke but not much heat.
 Portable Fire-Fighting Equipment
• Fire extinguisher.
• Fire blankets:
‒ Physically smother fires, e.g. fat fires in kitchens.

• Hose reels:
‒ Used in large buildings for fire teams.

• Sprinkler systems:
‒ Sited in buildings and warehouses.
‒ Automatically dowses the fire.
Extinguishing Media
 Siting, Maintenance and Training
• On fire exit routes.
• Close to exit doors.
• Close to specific hazards.
• Fixed to the wall or on stand/trolley.
• Clearly visible.
• Signed.
• Unobstructed access.
 Siting, Maintenance and Training
Inspection:
• Regular and frequent to ensure they are:
‒ In place (firing pin).
‒ In good working order.

Maintenance:
• Ensure they remain in safe working order.
• Once a year.
• Certificated engineer.
• Inspection, testing, dismantling.
 Siting, Maintenance and Training
• Theory training.

• Types of extinguisher.

• Hands-on experience.

• Records kept in line with local regulations.

 End of Module 10.3 Exercise

1. What are the different ways of detecting fire and

sounding the alarm?

2. Name the different types of fire extinguisher and

the class of fire they can be used on.
10.4 Fire Evacuation
 Means of Escape
• Available to every person in the workplace.
• Does not require use of lifts (expect in special cases).
• Must take person to a place of safety.
• Two or more separate routes may be required.
• Travel distance should be short.
• Adequate width.
• Clearly signed.
• Emergency lighting.
• No obstructions.
 Travel Distances

Depends on:
• Number of people occupying a room.
• Travel distance to nearest available:
‒ Final exit - to a place of total safety.
‒ Storey exit - into protected stairway.
‒ Separate fire compartment - containing final exit.
• Fire risk.
• Number of alternative escape routes available.
 Stairs and Passageways
• Fire-resistant protection.
• Adequate width:
‒ Consider wheelchair users.
• Unobstructed.
• No storage of materials or equipment.
 Doors

• Easy to operate.
• Adequate width.
• Open in direction of travel.
• Not locked.
 Emergency (Escape) Lighting
• At night or where there is no natural light.
• To indicate escape routes.
• To indicate call points and fire-fighting equipment.
• Regular maintenance.
• Routine inspection/testing.
 Exit and Directional Signs

• Standard shape.
• Standard colour.
• Pictogram.
• Easy to interpret.
• Clearly visible.
 Assembly Points
• Safe distance from building.
• Safe location.
• Further escape possible if
needed.
• Must not impede fire-fighters.
• Clearly signed.
• 'Refuges' for disabled workers.
 Group Exercise
Under your tutor’s direction, take a tour of an area of the building you
are in.

Note:
• Fire compartment, e.g. stairwells, fire doors, etc.
• Travel distances.
• Fire detection and alarms.
• Fire extinguishers, etc.
• Emergency lighting, signage.
 Emergency Evacuation Procedures
Emphasis is on personal safety:
• Sound the alarm.
• Get out of the building.
• Stay out of the building.

More complex procedures needed for

some workplaces, e.g. hospitals.
 Fire Marshals
Typical duties:
• Check all areas are evacuated.

• Assist disabled/infirm workers.

• Ensure fire escape routes are kept clear.

• Ensure windows and doors are closed.

• Conduct roll call at assembly point.

 Roll Call
• Ensure all persons accounted for.
• May not be practical, e.g. supermarkets.
 Provision for the Infirm and Disabled
• Staff with disabilities may need personal evacuation plans:
‒ Assist with travel downstairs.
‒ Alert those with hearing impairment.
• May need to consider temporary disabilities, e.g. use of crutches.
• Consider also evacuation of young/elderly.
 Building Plans and Emergency Escapes
Fire plans should include:
• Who is likely to be in premises.
• Action to be taken on discovering fire.
• Escape routes.
• Fire-fighting equipment.
• Action to be taken after evacuation.
• Training.
 Training and Information
Information on fire safety procedures for:
• Employees.
• Contractors.
• Visitors and the public.

Training for staff:

• Who use portable extinguishers.
• Fire marshals.
• Assist disabled or infirm people.
• Members of the fire team.
 Fire Drills
• Usually once or twice a year.

• Allows staff to practise procedures.

• Allows for testing of those procedures.

• Records kept.
 End of Module 10.4 Exercise

1. What general principles should be applied when

establishing means of escape?
2. What is the purpose of emergency lighting?
3. What might fire marshals do in the event of an
evacuation?
 Summary
In this element, we have:
• Outlined some of the basic principles of fire safety such as: the fire
triangle, the five classes of fire, the methods by which fire can
spread and some of the common causes of workplace fires.
• Explained how fire and the spread of fire can be prevented by
controlling potential fuel sources and potential ignition sources.
• Outlined the structural measures that exist to contain fire and
smoke in the event of a fire starting, and the use of self-closing fire
doors.
 Summary
• Described the general principles of fire detection and alarm
systems.
• Discussed types of fire extinguisher commonly used, such as
water, carbon dioxide, foam, dry powder and wet chemical, and
the strengths and limitations of each type.
• Outlined the principal characteristics of a means of escape.
• Described basic requirements for evacuation procedures, fire
marshals, training and information, the capabilities of
employees, fire drills and special procedures for the infirm or
disabled, and the inclusion of escape routes in building plans.
 NEBOSH International General Certificate
in Occupational Safety and Health
Unit IG2

Element 11: Electricity

© RRC International
 Learning Objectives
• Describe the hazards and risks associated with the use of
electricity in the workplace.
• Describe the control measures that should be taken when
working with electrical systems or using electrical
equipment in all workplace conditions.
11.1 The Hazards and Risks of Electricity
 Introduction to Electricity
An electrical circuit has three parameters:
Voltage (V) or potential
difference:
• Measured in volts.
Current (I) or rate of flow:
• Measured in amps.

Resistance (R) to the flow:

• Measured in ohms. Linked together by Ohm’s Law:

V=I×R
 Introduction to Electricity

V=I×R

I = V/R

R = V/I

NB Current is given the symbol ‘I’

So, if you know the values for two of the elements, you can
calculate the third.
Introduction to Electricity
Alternating Current (AC): Direct Current (DC):
• Mains supply is AC. • Battery supply is DC.
• Voltage alternates from • Current flows in one
+ve to -ve and back direction only.
again.
• Therefore current flows
backwards and forwards.
• UK = 230 volts, 50 Hz.
• US = 120 volts, 60 Hz.
 The Hazards and Risks of Electricity
• Electric shock.
• Burns.
• Fires and explosion.
• Arcing.
• Secondary effects.
 Electric Shock
Current (mA) flowing through the body Effect
0.5–2 Threshold of sensation
2–10 Tingling sensations, muscle tremor, painful
sensations
10–60 Muscle contractions, inability to let go,
inability to breathe
60 and above Ventricular fibrillation, cardiac arrest,
extreme muscle contractions, burns at
contact points and deep tissues
Electric Shock
The severity of shock is influenced by:
Voltage Higher the voltage, greater the current

Duration Exposure time

Current path Route through the body

Resistance Skin condition, clothing, etc.

Contact surface area More skin contact, more severe injury

Environmental factors Metal surfaces, humidity, etc.

Clothing and footwear Affects resistance and blocks/reduces current

flow
Frequency AC more harmful than DC at same shock
current
 Electrical Burns
Direct electrical burns:
• Current flowing through the body.
• Entry and exit point.
• Internal tissue burns.

Indirect electrical burns:

• An electrical accident causing something to overheat
or explode, e.g. arc flash.
 Electrical Fires and Explosions
Causes:
• Faulty electrical equipment overheating.
• Overloaded system.
• Overheating during charging.
• Equipment may be misused.
• Flammable atmosphere:
‒ With wrong type of equipment.
‒ Accidentally created.
• Electrical equipment producing heat or sparks in normal use.
• Poor internal electrical connections.
 Static Electricity
• Build up of potential difference (volts) between
surfaces.
• Caused by friction.
• Surfaces become ‘charged’.
• Static shock.
• Very short-duration static spark.
• Spark caused on contact with earth.
• Risk of igniting flammable liquids, etc.
 Arcing
Ability of electricity to ‘jump’ across an air gap:
• Usually involves high voltage, e.g. overhead power lines.

Main hazards:
• Electric shock.
• Direct burns from the arc.
• Indirect burns from the radiant heat.
• Damage to eyes from UV light.
 Secondary Effects

Physical injury caused by an electrical incident, e.g.

falling off a ladder causing:
• Cuts.
• Bruises.
• Broken bones.
 Dangerous Activities
• Use of poorly maintained electrical equipment.

• Use of electrical equipment in wet environments.

• Work near overhead power lines.

• Contact with underground power cables.

• Work on mains electricity supplies.

 Fixed and Portable Electrical Equipment
Conditions and practices likely to lead to accidents:
• Unsuitable equipment.
• Using equipment in damp conditions.
• Misuse.
• Physical abuse.
• Improper repairs, e.g. taped-up joints.
• Use of faulty, defective equipment.
• Chemical/abrasion damage to the flex.
• Lack of inspection, testing or maintenance.
11.2 Control Measures
 Protection of Conductors
• Insulated to prevent contact with live conductor:
‒ Cable coverings unbroken.
‒ Equipment casing intact.
• Inspect to ensure protection is in place.
• Ensure electrical panels are locked.
 Strength and Capability of Equipment
Electrical equipment must be carefully selected to ensure
that it is suitable for the:

• electrical system that it will become a part of;

• task that it will perform; and
• environment in which it will be used.

No electrical equipment should be put into use where its

electrical strength and capability may be exceeded.
 Strength and Capability of Equipment
Consider:
• Weather.
• Natural hazards, e.g. gnawing by rats.
• Extremes of temperature and pressure, e.g. heat from motors.
• Dirty conditions.
• Corrosive conditions.
• Liquids and vapours, e.g. splashing.
• Flammable substances.
• Foreseeable mechanical damage.
 Protective Systems and Devices
• Fuses and miniature circuit breakers.
• Earthing.
• Isolation of supply.
• Double insulation.
• Residual Current Devices (RCDs).
• Reduced and low-voltage systems.
 Fuses and Miniature Circuit Breakers
Fuses:
• Prevents current overload:
‒ An overcurrent protection device.

• Weak link in a circuit.

• Overheats and melts if the current exceeds the fuse rating.
• Designed to protect equipment, not people.
 Fuses and Miniature Circuit Breakers
Miniature circuit breakers:
• Similar to a fuse.
• Prevents current overload:
‒ An overcurrent protection device.
• Electromechanical device.
• Trips a switch.
• Can be reset.
• Tamper-proof.
• Designed to protect equipment, not people.
 Earthing
• In event of a fault, provides a safe path to earth.
• Outer metal casing connected to earth by wire.
• Electric shock should be minor.
 Isolation of Supply
• Removal of electrical power from a circuit or system.
• Switch/isolator or removing the plug.
• Circuit ‘dead’ and safe to work on.
• Physically secured by lock (lock-out/tag-out).
• Should be clearly labelled.
• Circuit should be tested.
 Double Insulation
• Live parts or parts that might become live under fault
conditions cannot be easily touched.
• Often achieved by having two layers of insulation
between live conductors and any external metal surfaces
or external surfaces are non-conducting (plastic).
• Called Class II equipment.
• No need for earth protection.
 Residual Current Devices
• Specifically designed to protect human life.
• Constantly compares current in live and neutral.
• Sensitive to small current imbalance, i.e. leak to earth:
‒ Very sensitive: 30 mA.
‒ Very fast: 40ms.

• Can be used:
‒ As part of a plug.
‒ As standalone device.
‒ Hard-wired into distribution system.
 Reduced and Low-Voltage Systems
As voltage is reduced, so the shock current is reduced:
• UK voltage 230 V stepped down to 110 V for portable
tools.

• 50 volts equipment (SELV).

 Group Exercise

What factors do you think should be considered

when selecting suitable electrical equipment for use
on a construction site?
 Reduced and Low-Voltage Systems
Control measures when selecting portable electrical
equipment on construction sites:
• Use battery-powered, reduced- or low-voltage equipment.
• Use RCDs.
• Locate cables carefully.
• Use double-insulated equipment.
• Carry out pre-use checks.
• Train operators in correct use.
• Avoid using in wet conditions.
• Implement routine visual inspection and testing.
 Group Exercise

What do we mean by the term ‘competence’?

 Competent Persons
• Knowledge of electricity.

• Experience of electrical work.

• Understanding of the system.

• Understanding of hazards and precautions.

• Ability to recognise whether safe to continue work.

 Use of Safe Systems of Work
• Work ‘dead’ whenever possible.
• Work on or near live electrical equipment:
‒ Only under exceptional circumstances.
‒ And if controlled tightly.
Working on or Near Live Electrical Systems
No live working unless no alternative.
If essential, safe system of work to include:
• Permit to work.
• Competent persons.
• Insulating PPE such as boots and gauntlets.
• Insulated tools and equipment.
• Designated work areas.
 Isolation
Usually requires:
• The breaking of the circuit.
• Physical securing of the break in the circuit.
• Some form of label (or tag).
 Preventing Buried Cable Strikes
May be struck during excavations.

Can result in:

• Arcing, shock, burns, fire.

Precautions:
• Check plans.
• Detection equipment
• Expose by hand digging.
• Identify and label.
 Work Near Overhead Power Lines
Usually uninsulated.

Control measures:
• Arrange isolation or cover
(sleeve).
• Safe systems of work and
permit to work.
• Barriers, signs, goal posts.
• Banksman (signaller).
• Non-conducting equipment.
 Group Exercise

What action should be taken on finding a person

suspected to have suffered an electric shock?
Emergency Procedures Following an Electrical
Incident
• Don’t touch the casualty. ‒ Recovery position if breathing.
• Call for help and ‒ Start CPR if not breathing.
ambulance. • Treat burns.
• Turn off power supply. • Treat for physiological
• If can’t switch off power, shock.
isolate casualty from the • Ensure medical help is
supply. obtained.

• Check for breathing:

Inspection and Maintenance Strategies
• Applies to:
‒ Fixed wiring systems.
‒ Portable appliance testing.
• Combined inspection and testing.
 User Checks
• Body of plug intact and secure.
• Outer flex sheath covers all inner wires.
• Plug and appliance cable clamp tight.
• Flex fully insulated - no splits or kinks.
• Body of appliance intact.
• No damage to casing of equipment.
• No burns/scorch marks.
• Not soiled or wet.
 Frequency of Inspection and Testing
Frequency is determined by:
• Legal standards and codes of practice.
• Type of equipment/whether or not it’s hand-held.
• Manufacturers’ recommendations.
• Initial integrity and soundness of the equipment.
• Age of the equipment.
• Working environment.
• Frequency and duration of use.
• Foreseeable abuse of the equipment.
• Effects of any modifications or repairs.
• Analysis of previous maintenance records.
 Group Exercise
What are the advantages and
limitations of PAT?
 Advantages and Limitations of Portable Appliance
Testing
Advantages: Limitations:
• Detects faults not visible to • Provides proof of safety at
the eye. one moment in time only.
• Early removal/repair of • Does not ensure safe use or
unsafe equipment. prevent misuse.
• Demonstrates legal • Items may be missed and
compliance. then remain untested.
• Identifies trends or patterns • Can't be applied to all
of faults. equipment (e.g.
computers).
 Summary
In this element, we have:
• Outlined basic electrical principles such as voltage, current and
resistance and the relationship between them.
• Described the hazards of electricity as electric shock, burns (both
direct and indirect), fire and explosion, arcing, and secondary
effects.
• Explained the range of effects of electric shock, and how the
severity of injury is influenced by several factors.
• Outlined the reasons why portable electrical equipment is often
involved in electrical accident.
 Summary
• Described the various protective systems that can be used for
electrical equipment.
• Outlined the importance of restricting work on electrical systems to
competent persons only.
• Outlined the use of safe systems of work to control the high risks
associated with work on or near electrical systems.
• Described an emergency procedure to be put in place if a person is
injured in an electrical incident.
• Explained the importance of user checks, formal visual inspections,
and combined inspection and testing.