1

FUNCTIONS AND MODELS

FUNCTIONS AND MODELS

1.5
Exponential Functions

In this section, we will learn about:

Exponential functions and their applications.
EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

The function f(x) = 2x is called

an exponential function because
the variable, x, is the exponent.

 It should not be confused with the power function

g(x) = x2, in which the variable is the base.
EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

In general, an exponential function

is a function of the form f(x) = ax
where a is a positive constant.

 Let’s recall what this means.

EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

If x = n, a positive integer,
then:
a  a  
n
a  a    a
n factors
EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

If x = 0, then a0 = 1, and if x = -n,

where n is a positive integer,
then:
n 1
a  n
a
EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

If x is a rational number, x = p/q,

where p and q are integers and q > 0,
then:
q q
a a
x p/q
 a  ( a)
p p
EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

However, what is the meaning of ax

if x is an irrational number?

 For instance, what is meant by 2 3

or 5 ?
EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

To help us answer that question,

we first look at the graph of the function
y = 2x, where x is rational.
 A representation of
this graph is shown here.
EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

We want to enlarge the domain of y = 2x

to include both rational and irrational
numbers.
EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

There are holes in the graph

corresponding to irrational values of x.
 We want to fill in the holes
by defining f(x) = 2x,
where x ° , so that f is
an increasing function.
EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

In particular, since the irrational number

3 1.7  3  1.8
satisfies
2 2 2
1.7 3 1.8 , we must
have

 We know what 21.7 and 21.8

mean because 1.7 and 1.8
are rational numbers.
EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

Similarly, if we use better approximations

for 3 , we obtain better approximations
3
for 2 :
1.73  3  1.74  21.73  2 3
 21.74
1.732  3  1.733  21.732  2 3
 21.733
1.7320  3  1.7321  21.7320  2 3
 21.7321
1.73205  3  1.73206  21.73205  2 3  21.73206
     
     
     
EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

It can be shown that there is exactly one

number that is greater than all the numbers

21.7, 21.73, 21.732, 21.7320, 21.73205, …

and less than all the numbers

21.8, 21.74, 21.733, 21.7321, 21.73206, …

EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS
3
We define 2 to be this number.

 Using the preceding approximation process,

we can compute it correct to six decimal places:

2 3
 3.321997

 Similarly, we can define 2x (or ax, if a > 0)

where x is any irrational number.
EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

The figure shows how all the holes in

the earlier figure have been filled to
complete the graph of the function
f(x) = 2x, x ° .
EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

The graphs of members of the family of

functions y = ax are shown here for various
values of the base a.
EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

Notice that all these graphs pass through

the same point (0, 1) because a0 = 1 for a ≠ 0.
EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

Notice also that as the base a gets larger,

the exponential function grows more rapidly
(for x > 0).
EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

You can see that there are basically three

kinds of exponential functions y = ax.
 If 0 < a < 1, the exponential function decreases.

 If a = 1, it is
a constant.

 If a > 1,
it increases.
EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

Those three cases are

illustrated here.
EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

Observe that, if a ≠ 1, then the exponential

function y = ax has domain and range
(0, ).
EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

Notice also that, since (1/a)x = 1/ax = a-x,

the graph of y = (1/a)x is just the reflection
of the graph of y = ax about the y-axis.
EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

One reason for the importance of

the exponential function lies in the
following properties.
 If x and y are rational numbers, then these laws
are well known from elementary algebra.
 It can be proved that they remain true for arbitrary
real numbers x and y.
LAWS OF EXPONENTS

If a and b are positive numbers and

x and y are any real numbers, then:

1. ax + y = axay
2. ax – y = ax/ay
3. (ax)y = axy
4. (ab)x = axbx
EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS Example 1

Sketch the graph of the function

y = 3 - 2x and determine its domain
and range.
EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS Example 1

First, we reflect the graph of y = 2x

about the x-axis to get the graph of
y = -2x.
EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS Example 1

Then, we shift the graph of y = -2x

upward 3 units to obtain the graph
of y = 3 - 2x (second figure).
 The domain is
and the range
is .
(, 3)
EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS Example 2

Use a graphing device to compare

The exponential function f(x) = 2x and
the power function g(x) = x2.

Which function grows more quickly when x

is large?
EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS Example 2

The figure shows both functions graphed

in the viewing rectangle [-2, 6] by [0, 40].
 We see that the graphs intersect three times.
 However, for x > 4, the graph of f(x) = 2x stays
above the graph of g(x) = x2.
EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS Example 2

This figure gives a more global view

and shows that, for large values of x,
the exponential function y = 2x grows far
more rapidly than the power function y = x2.
APPLICATIONS OF EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

The exponential function occurs

very frequently in mathematical models
of nature and society.
 Here, we indicate briefly how it arises in
the description of population growth.
 In Chapter 3, we will pursue these and other
applications in greater detail.
APPLICATIONS OF EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

First, we consider a population of

bacteria in a homogeneous nutrient
medium.
APPLICATIONS: BACTERIA POPULATION

Suppose that, by sampling the population

at certain intervals, it is determined that
the population doubles every hour.

 If the number of bacteria at time t is p(t), where t

is measured in hours, and the initial population is
p(0) = 1000, then we have:
p (1)  2 p(0)  2 1000
p (2)  2 p(1)  22 1000
p (3)  2 p(2)  23 1000
APPLICATIONS: BACTERIA POPULATION

In general, p(t )  2  1000  (1000)2

t t

 This population function is a constant multiple

of the exponential function.
 So, it exhibits the rapid growth that we observed
in these figures.
APPLICATIONS: BACTERIA POPULATION

Under ideal conditions (unlimited space

and nutrition and freedom from disease),
this exponential growth is typical of what
actually occurs in nature.
APPLICATIONS

What about the

human population?
APPLICATIONS: HUMAN POPULATION

The table shows data for the population of

the world in the 20th century.
The figure shows the corresponding scatter
plot.
APPLICATIONS: HUMAN POPULATION

The pattern of the data points

suggests exponential growth.
APPLICATIONS: HUMAN POPULATION

So, we use a graphing calculator with

exponential regression capability to apply
the method of least squares and obtain the
exponential model

p  (0.008079266)  (1.013731) t
APPLICATIONS: HUMAN POPULATION

The figure shows the graph of this

exponential function together with
the original data points.
APPLICATIONS: HUMAN POPULATION

We see that the exponential curve fits

the data reasonably well.
 The period of relatively slow population growth
is explained by the two world wars and the Great
Depression of
the 1930s.
THE NUMBER e

Of all possible bases for an exponential

function, there is one that is most convenient
for the purposes of calculus.

The choice of a base a is influenced by the

way the graph of y = ax crosses the y-axis.
THE NUMBER e

The figures show the tangent lines to the

graphs of y = 2x and y = 3x at the point (0, 1).
 Tangent lines will be defined precisely in Section 2.7.
 For now, consider the tangent line to an exponential
graph at a point as the line touching the graph only at
that point.
THE NUMBER e

If we measure the slopes of these

tangent lines at (0, 1), we find that
m ≈ 0.7 for y = 2x and m ≈ 1.1 for y = 3x.
THE NUMBER e

It turns out—as we will see in Chapter 3—

that some formulas of calculus will be greatly
simplified if we choose the base a so that
the slope of the tangent line to y = ax at (0, 1)
is exactly 1.
THE NUMBER e

In fact, there is such a number and

it is denoted by the letter e.
 This notation was chosen by the Swiss
mathematician Leonhard Euler in 1727—probably
because it is the first letter of the word ‘exponential.’
THE NUMBER e

In view of the earlier figures, it comes

as no surprise that:
 The number e lies between 2 and 3
 The graph of y = ex lies between the graphs
of y = 2x and y = 3x
THE NUMBER e

In Chapter 3, we will see that

the value of e, correct to five decimal
places, is:
e ≈ 2.71828
THE NUMBER e Example 3

Graph the function 1 x

y  e 1
2
and state the domain and range.
THE NUMBER e Example 3

We start with the graph of y = ex and

reflect about the y-axis to get the graph
of y = e-x.
 Notice that the graph crosses the y-axis with a slope
of -1.
THE NUMBER e Example 3

Then, we compress the graph vertically

by a factor of 2 to obtain the graph
1 x
of y  2 e (second figure).
THE NUMBER e Example 3

Finally, we shift the graph downward

one unit to get the desired graph
(second figure).
 The domain is and the range is (1, .)
THE NUMBER e

How far to the right do you think we

would have to go for the height of the
graph of y = ex to exceed a million?
 The next example demonstrates the rapid growth
of this function by providing an answer that might
surprise you.
THE NUMBER e Example 4

Use a graphing device to

find the values of x for which
ex > 1,000,000.
THE NUMBER e Example 4

Here, we graph both the function y = ex

and the horizontal line y = 1,000,000.
 We see that these curves intersect when x ≈ 13.8
 Thus, ex > 106 when x > 13.8
 It is perhaps surprising
that the values of the
exponential function
have already surpassed
a million when x is only
14.