(COM 113)

Programming Languages

Lesson 1
Introduction

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 OBJECTIVES
After this course, the reader
should be able to:

Have a vision of computer language evolution.

Distinguish between machine, assembly, and high-level

languages.

Understand the process of creating and running a program.

Distinguish between the different categories of languages:

procedural, object-oriented, functional, declarative, and special.

Become familiar with concepts of programming language

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 Why Study Programming
Languages?
In 1969, Sammet listed 120 programming
languages in common use – now there are more
than 2500 programming Languages

Most programmers never use more than a few.

◦ Some limit their career’s to just one or two.

The gain is in learning about their underlying

design concepts and how this affects their
implementation.

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The Six Primary Reasons
Increased ability to express ideas
Improved background for choosing appropriate
languages
Increased ability to learn new languages
Better understanding of significance of
implementation
Better use of languages that are already known
Overall advancement of computing

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Reason #1 - Increased ability to
express ideas
The depth at which people can think is
heavily influenced by the expressive power
of their language.

It is difficult for people to conceptualize

structures that they cannot describe,
verbally or in writing.

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Expressing Ideas as Algorithms
This includes a programmer’s to develop
effective algorithms

Many languages provide features that can

waste computer time or lead
programmers to logic errors if used
improperly
◦ E. g., recursion in Pascal, C, etc.
◦ E. g., GoTos in FORTRAN, etc.

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Reason #2 - Improved background for
choosing appropriate languages
Many professional programmers have a
limited formal education in computer
science, limited to a small number of
programming languages.

They are more likely to use languages

with which they are most comfortable
than the most suitable one for a particular
job.

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Reason #3 - Increased ability to
learn new languages
Computer science is a relatively young
discipline and most software technologies
(design methodology, software development,
and programming languages) are not yet mature.
Therefore, they are still evolving.

A thorough understanding of programming

language design and implementation makes it
easier to learn new languages.

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Learning a New Language
 It is easier to learn a new language if
you understand the underlying structures
of language.
Examples:
◦ It is easier for a BASIC program to learn Visual
Basic, FORTRAN than C.
◦ It is easier for a C++ programmer to learn Java.
◦ It is easier for a Scheme programmer to learn LISP.

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Evolution Map of Programming Languages

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Reason #4 - Better understanding of
significance of implementation
Itis often necessary to learn about
language implementation; it can lead to a
better understanding of why the language
was designed the way that it was.

Fixing some bugs requires an

understanding of implementation issues.

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Reason #5 - Better use of languages
that are already known
To allow a better choice of programming
language

Some languages are better for some jobs

than others.
◦ Example – FORTRAN and APL for
calculations, COBOL and RPG for report
generation, LISP and PROLOG for AI, etc.

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Better Use of a Language
To improve your use of existing
programming language

By understanding how features are

implemented, you can make more
efficient use of them.

Examples:
Creating arrays, strings, lists, records.
Using recursions, object classes, etc.

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Reason #6 - Overall advancement
of computing
Frequently, the most popular language
may not be the best language available.

E.g., ALGOL 60 did NOT displace

Fortran.
◦ They had difficulty understanding its
description and they didn’t see the significance
of its block structure and well-structured
control statements until many years later.

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THE SOFTWARE CRISIS
 The phrase software crisis alludes to a set of problems
encountered in the development of computer software during
the 1960s when attempting to build larger and larger software
systems using existing development techniques.
 As a result:
◦ 1.Schedule and cost estimates were often grossly inaccurate.
◦ 2.Productivity of programmers could not keep up with
demand.
◦ 3.Poor quality software was produced.
 Toaddress these problems the discipline of software
engineering came into being.

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Programming Languages

Lesson 2
Principles of Programming
Languages

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Computer Science as Programming
How to build systems.
◦ Better, faster, cheaper.
◦ Reliable, maintainable, extensible.

Evaluating and comparing systems.

◦ Performance, behavior, security.
◦ Compliance, usability.

What can and can’t be done.

◦ Algorithms and complexity.
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What is a Programming Language?
Definitions (1)
 A programming language is a notational system for
describing computation in machine-readable and
human-readable form.
A programming language is an artificial language
that can be used to control the behavior of a
machine, particularly a computer

 Programming languages, like human languages,

are defined through the use of syntactic and
semantic rules, to determine structure and meaning
respectively. 20
Dr Joe Essien - (CSC 514) Organization of Programming Languages
Definition (2)
 Formal notation for specifying computations, independent of
a specific machine

 Set of imperative commands used to direct computer to do

something useful

Programming languages are used to:

Facilitate communication about task

Organize Information
Manipulate Information
Express algorithms precisely

There are more than 2,500 documented programming languages

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 OPERATION OF A COMPUTER
PROGRAM
 A computer program resides in primary memory where it is
represented as a set of machine instructions which in turn
are represented as sequences of binary digits.
 At any point in time the computer is said to be in a
particular state.
 A central feature of the state is the instruction pointer
which points to the next machine instruction to be
executed.
 The execution sequence of a group of machine instructions
is known as the flow of control.

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The Language of a Computer
Uses digital signals
◦ all 0's and 1's (binary)
◦ bits (BInary digiTs)

Data and commands stored in binary

◦ 8 bits in a byte
◦ ASCII character stored in a byte
◦ Integers stored in 2 or 4 bytes

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Programming as Linguistic
 Programming is an explanatory activity.
◦ To yourself, now and in the future.
◦ To whoever has to read your code.
◦ To the compiler, which has to make it run.

 Explanations require language.

◦ To state clearly what is going on.
◦ To communicate ideas over space and time.

 Therefore languages are of the essence in computer science.

◦ Programming languages, in the familiar sense.
◦ Description languages, design patterns, architecture languages,
specification languages.

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Declarative Programming
Resolution: Combining two or more statements
to produce a new statement (that is a logical
consequence of the originals).
◦ Example: (P OR Q) AND (R OR Q)
resolves to (P OR R)
◦ Resolvent: A new statement deduced by resolution
◦ Clause form: A statement whose elementary
components are connected by the Boolean operation
OR
Unification: Assigning a value to a variable so
that two statements become “compatible.”

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DECLARATIVE v NON-
DECLARATIVE PROGRAMMING

Languages can also be classified by the

emphasis they put on “what is to be
achieved” against “how it is to be achieved”.

The first are said to be declarative (e.g.

functional and logic languages).

The second is said to be non-declarative or

procedural (e.g. imperative languages).

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 Non-computational
languages:
 Non-computational languages, such as markup
languages like HTML are usually not considered
programming languages.

 Oftena programming language is embedded in the

non-computational language.

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Programming Language Structure

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Classification of programming
languages:
1. Machine, Assembler and High Level
Languages
2. Chronological order of development
3. Generations
4. Levels of abstraction (from machine level)
5. Declarative v Non-declarative
6. Paradigms

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MACHINE LANGUAGE (1)
It is the lowest-level programming language.
Machine languages are the only languages
understood by computers.
While easily understood by computers, machine
languages are almost impossible for humans to use
because they consist entirely of numbers.

For example, a processor can execute the following

binary instruction expressed in machine language:
Binary: 10110000 01100001 (Hexadecimal: 0xb061)

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MACHINE LANGUAGE (2)
 Thus,a program running on a computer is simply a
sequence of bits.

 A program in this format is said to be in machine code.

 We can write programs in machine code:

23fc 0000 0001 0000 0040

0cb9 0000 000a 0000 0040
6e0c
06b9 0000 0001 0000 0040
60e8
MACHINE LANGUAGE (3)
Earlycomputers programmed in
machine languages
◦ All binary numbers

Assembly language used mnemonic

codes
◦ Codes translated
into machine
language by a
program called
the "assembler"
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ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE (1)
Assembly language (or assembler code) was our
first attempt at producing a mechanism for writing
programs that was more palatable to ourselves.

movl #0x1,n
• Of course a compare:
program written
in machine code, cmpl #oxa,n
in order to “run”, cgt
must first be end_of_loop
translated
(assembled) into acddl #0x1,n
machine code.
bra compare
end_of_loop:
ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE (2)
 An assembly language is a low-level language for
programming computers.

 The word "low" does not imply that the language is

inferior to high-level programming languages but rather
refers to the small or nonexistent amount of abstraction
between the language and machine language, because of
this, low-level languages are sometimes described as
being "close to the hardware."

 Itimplements a symbolic representation of the numeric

machine codes and other constants needed to program a
particular CPU architecture.

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ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE (3)
 A utility program called an assembler, is used to translate
assembly language statements into the target computer's machine
code.
 The assembler performs a more or less isomorphic translation (a
one-to-one mapping) from mnemonic statements into machine
instructions and data.
Example to add 2 numbers in assembly language mnemonic

name "add"
mov al, 5 ; bin=00000101b
mov bl, 10 ; hex=0ah or bin=00001010b
add bl, al ; 5 + 10 = 15 (decimal) or hex=0fh or
bin=00001111b

The mnemonic "mov" and “add” are operation code or opcode, A

comma-separated list of arguments or parameters follows the
opcode;

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 Comparing Machine Language &
Assembly Language
 Forexample, the machine code for adding two integers
might be:
010000110011101000111101010000010010101101000010

 While the assembly language code might be:

LOAD A
ADD B
STORE C

◦ This causes the number in A to be added to the number

in B, and the result is stored for later use in C.

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High-level language (1)
High level languages read like
combination of English and algebra
write_string (outfile,cust_name,'l',23);
first_line = 1;
ord.read_order(infile);
while (!ord.done())
{
if ( !first_line) write_string (outfile," ",'l',23);
ord.print_order (outfile,part_list);
first_line = 0;
ord.read_order(infile);
}

◦ Translated into machine language by a

program called a compiler
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High-level language (2)
 High-level languages are relatively easy to learn
because the instructions bear a close resemblance to
everyday language, and because the programmer does
not require a detailed knowledge of the internal
workings of the computer.

 Each instruction in a high-level language is equivalent

to several machine-code instructions, therefore it is
more compact than equivalent low-level programs.

 High-level languages are used to solve problems and

are often described as problem-oriented languages

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High-level language (3)
1. Source program created with an editor
2. Source code translated into machine
language by compiler
results in a .obj file (object code)
3. Linker combines common library
routines with object code
Results in a .exe file (executable code)
4. Loader brings executable code into
memory and it is run

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High-level language (4)
Highlevel languages read like
combination of English and algebra

Translated into machine language by a program

called a compiler

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 High-level language (5)
Examples of HLL:
BASIC was designed to be easily learnt by first-time programmers;
COBOL is used to write programs solving business problems;
PASCAL is used for solving scientific and mathematical problems
FORTRAN is used for programs solving scientific and
mathematical problems.

With the increasing popularity of windows-based systems, the next

generation of programming languages was designed to facilitate
the development of GUI interfaces;

Examples: Visual Basic wraps the BASIC language in a graphical

programming environment.
Support for object-oriented programming has also become more
common, for example in C++ and Java.

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 LANGUAGE LEVELS OF
ABSTRACTION
Level Instructions Memory handling

Low level Simple machine- Direct memory access

languages like instructions and allocation

High level Expressions and Memory access and

languages explicit flow of allocation through
control operators

Very high level Fully abstract Fully hidden memory

languages machine access and
automatic allocation
 Programming Languages

Lesson 3
Programming Languages Paradigm

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Scope of Programming Language Derivatives (1)
Software Domains Implementation/Execution Tools
Enterprise  ArchiMate  TOGAF ADM and ACF
Architecture  ARIS Express  Zachman Framework
Modelling  Archi  Development of Maturity Matrices
Ontology  OWL  Reasoners and Graphic
Development  SPARQL Representation tools.
 Cloud Computing Technologies
Software  Behaviour Driven • SCRUM Methodologies
Development  Object Oriented • Agile Development Methodologies
Methodologies  Feature Driven Development • V-Model
 Test Driven Development • Waterfall Development Method
 Model Driven Development • Incremental Development Method
Business Process  VPEC-T
Analysis  IBM Requisite Pro
Software Modelling  UML  Visio 2010
 ARIS  STARUML
Software  Visual Basic, C, C++, C#,  Eclipse, Ruby
Development and VB.NET, Python , Perl  Java, Java Scripts
Reporting  Java Development Kit, IDE  PHP, SCALA
Database  Sybase  ORACLE
Management  TOAD

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Scope of Programming Language Derivatives (2_
Software Domains Implementation/Execution Tools
Software Testing  Selenium  Test Complete
 Atlassian JIRA  GHERKINS Specifications
Documentation and  Implementing solutions for  Microsoft SharePoint
Archiving document collaboration and  Disk imaging and mass deployment
management.
Web Based  PHP  HTML
Application  JAVA  XHTML
Operating platform  Installation, configuration and  Windows Servers and Operating
preparation management of servers, Systems
workstations, routers and  SUSE Linux, HP-UX, IBM AIX
network infrastructure
Computer Systems  Building computer systems  Network resources, hubs, routers,
Engineering  Technical support, Repairs, VPN
upgrades  Printers, scanners, firewalls
 Systems configuration and building
Network  Windows, UNIX, SUSE  Apple, Ubuntu, HP-UX, IBM AIX
Administration LINUX, Androids, etc

There are much more to this …

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PROGRAMMING PARADIGMS
In science a paradigm describes a set of techniques that have
been found to be effective for a given problem domain.

In the context of programming languages we say that a

paradigm induces a particular way of thinking about the
programming task.

A paradigm can typically be expressed in terms of a single

principle (even if this is in fact an over simplification).

This principle must be supported by a set of techniques.

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Programming Language Paradigms

1. Imperative (e.g. Pascal, Ada, C).

2. Object-oriented (e.g. Java).
3. Functional (e.g. Haskell, SML).
4. Logic (e.g. Prolog).

Discussions

Principles of PLP

Concepts of PLP

Von Neumann Architecture

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Programming Paradigms
A programming language is a problem-solving
tool.

program = algorithms +
Imperative style: data
good for decomposition
program = functions o

Functional style: functions

good for reasoning
Logic programming program = facts + rules
style: good for searching
program = objects +
Object-oriented
messages
style:
good for modeling(!)
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 Principles of PL Paradigm (1)
 When programming systems with many processors, parallel or
process-oriented programming allows programmers to think
about applications as sets of concurrent processes using shared data
structures.

 There are many possible models typically reflecting different ways

processors can be interconnected.

 The most common are based on shared memory, distributed

memory with message passing, or a hybrid of the two.

 Most parallel architectures use multiple von Neumann machines as

processing units.
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Principles of PL Paradigm(2)
Specialized programming languages are designed for
parallel/concurrent computing.

Distributed computing rely on several sequential computers

interconnected to solve a common problem.

Such systems rely on interconnection middleware for

communication and information sharing.

Other processing paradigms were invented that went away from the von
Neumann model, an examples are Dataflow machines and LISP

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 Principles of PL Paradigm(3)
Low-level programming paradigm

Initially, computers were hard-wired or soft-wired and then

later programmed using binary code that represented control
sequences fed to the computer CPU.

This was difficult and error-prone. Programs written in binary

are said to be written in machine code, which is a very low-
level programming paradigm.

Hard-wired, soft-wired, and binary programming are considered

first generation languages.

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 Principles of PL Paradigm(4)
Low-level programming paradigm
To make programming easier, assembly languages were developed.
These replaced machine code functions with mnemonics and
memory addresses with symbolic labels.
Assembly language programming is considered a low-level
paradigm although it is a 'second generation' paradigm.
Assembly languages support libraries and are quite sophisticated
conditional macro generation and pre-processing capabilities.
They also supported modular programming features such as
subroutines, external variables and common sections (globals),
enabling significant code re-use and isolation from hardware
specifics via use of logical operators.
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 Principles of PL Paradigm(5)
Low-level programming paradigm

Assembly was, and still is, used for time-critical systems and
frequently in embedded systems.

Assembly programming can directly take advantage of a specific

computer architecture and, when written properly, leads to highly
optimized code.

However, it is bound to this architecture or processor and thus suffers

from lack of portability.

Assembly languages have limited abstraction capabilities, which

makes them unsuitable to develop large/complex software.

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Imperative PL Paradigm (1)
Often thought as a synonym for Procedural programming.

Specifying the steps the program must take to reach the desired state.

Based upon the concept of the procedure call.

Procedures, also known as routines, subroutines, methods, or functions

that contain a series of computational steps to be carried out.

Any given procedure might be called at any point during a program's

execution, including by other procedures or itself.

A procedural programming language provides a programmer a means to

define precisely each step in the performance of a task. The
programmer knows what is to be accomplished and provides through the
language step-by-step instructions on how the task is to be done.

Using a procedural language, the programmer specifies language

statements to perform a sequence of algorithmic steps.

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Imperative PL Paradigm(2)
Possible benefits:

Often a better choice than simple sequential or unstructured programming in many situations

which involve moderate complexity or require significant ease of maintainability.

The ability to re-use the same code at different places in the program without copying it.

An easier way to keep track of program flow than a collection of "GOTO" or "JUMP"

statements (which can turn a large, complicated program into spaghetti code).

The ability to be strongly modular or structured.

 The main benefit of procedural programming over first- and second-

generation languages is that it allows for modularity, which is generally
desirable, especially in large, complex programs.
 Modularity was one of the earliest abstraction features identified as
desirable for a programming language.

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Imperative PL Paradigm (3)
Scoping
Scoping is another abstraction technique that helps to keep procedures strongly
modular.

It prevents a procedure from accessing the variables of other procedures (and

vice-versa), including previous instances of itself such as in recursion.

Procedures
Procedures are convenient for making pieces of code written by different people
or groups represented in programming libraries.
specify a simple interface

self-contained information and algorithmics

reusable piece of code

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Imperative PL Paradigm (4)
The focus of procedural programming is to break down a
programming task into a collection of variables, data structures, and
subroutines.

This is contrary to object-oriented programming which break s down

a programming task into objects with each "object" encapsulating its
own data and methods (subroutines).

The most important distinction is whereas procedural programming

uses procedures to operate on data structures, object-oriented
programming bundles the two together so an "object”.

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Imperative PL Paradigm (5)
 The earliest imperative languages were the machine languages of the original computers. In

these languages, instructions were very simple, which made hardware implementation easier, but

hindered the creation of complex programs.

 FORTRAN (1954) was the first major programming language to remove through abstraction

the obstacles presented by machine code in the creation of complex programs.

 FORTRAN was a compiled language that allowed named variables, complex expressions,

subprograms, and many other features now common in imperative languages.

 In the late 1950s and 1960s, ALGOL was developed in order to allow mathematical

algorithms to be more easily expressed.

 In the 1970s, Pascal was developed by Niklaus Wirth, and C was created by Dennis Ritchie for

the needs of the United States Department of Defense, Jean Ichbiah and a team at Honeywell

began designing Ada in 1978.

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Object-Oriented PLD – Definition (1)
Object-oriented programming (OOP) is a programming paradigm that
uses "objects" – data structures encapsulating data fields and
procedures together with their interactions to design applications .

Identify components of the problem which are objects

Usually these are the nouns in the program description

Identify operations which are performed on the objects

Often these are the verbs in the program description

Associated programming techniques may include features such as

data abstraction, encapsulation, modularity and inheritance.
Many modern programming languages now support OOP.

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Object-Oriented PLD – Definition (1b)
Structured Programming
Thoroughly understand the problem

Determine;
the output desired
the required input
processing that will occur

Divide the problem into sub-problems

Other names for this process

structured design
top-down design
stepwise refinement
modular programming
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Object-Oriented PLD – Class (2)
A class defines the abstract characteristics of a thing (object),
including that object’s characteristics (attributes, fields or
properties) and behaviors (the operations it can do, or methods,
operations or functionalities).

Classes provide modularity and structure in an object-oriented

computer program.

The code for a class is relatively self-contained (generally using

encapsulation).

Collectively, the properties and methods defined by a class are called

its members.

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Object-Oriented PLD – Object (3a)
An object is an individual of a class created at run-time through object
instantiation from a class.

The set of values of the attributes of a particular object forms its state.

The object consists of the state and the behavior that's defined in the
object's class.

The object is instantiated by implicitly calling its constructor, which is

one of its member functions responsible for the creation of instances of that
class.

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Components of an Object
Instance Variable: Variable within an
object
◦ Holds information within the object

Method: Procedure within an object

◦ Describes the actions that the object can
perform

Constructor: Special method used to

initialize a new object when it is first
constructed
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Object-Oriented PLD – attribute (4)
An attribute, also called data member or member variable, is the data
encapsulated within a class or object.

In the case of a regular field (also called instance variable), for each instance
of the object there is an instance variable.

A static field (also called class variable) is one variable shared by all instances.

Attributes are an object’s variables that, upon being given values at

instantiation (using a constructor) represent the state of the object.

A class is a data structure that may contain different fields, defined to contain
the procedures that act upon it. It represents an abstract data type.

In pure object-oriented programming, the attributes of an object are local and

cannot be seen from the outside.

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Object-Oriented PLD – method (5i)
A method is a subroutine that is exclusively associated either with a class
(in which case it is called a class method or a static method) or with an
object (in which case it is an instance method).

A method usually consists of a sequence of programming statements to

perform an action, a set of input parameters to customize those actions, and
possibly an output value (called the return value).

Methods provide a mechanism for accessing and manipulating the

encapsulated state of an object.

Encapsulating methods inside of objects is what distinguishes object-

oriented programming from procedural programming.

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Object-Oriented PLD – method (5ii)
Instance methods are associated with an object

Class or Static methods are associated with a class.

The object-oriented programming paradigm intentionally favors the use of

methods for each and every means of access and change to underlying data:

Constructors: Creation and initialization of the state of an object. Constructors are called

automatically by the run-time system when an object declaration is encountered.

Retrieval and modification of state: accessor methods are used to access the value of a

particular attribute of an object.

Service-providing: A class exposes some “service-providing” methods to the exterior. A

class may also define private methods visible from the internal perspective of the object.

Destructor: When an object goes out of scope, or destroyed, its destructor is called by the

run-time system. This frees the memory and resources used during its execution.
Object-Oriented PLD – Inheritance (6)
Inheritance is a way to compartmentalize and reuse code by creating collections
of attributes and behaviors (classes) based on previously created classes.

The new classes, known as subclasses (or derived classes), inherit attributes and
behavior of the pre-existing classes, which are referred to as superclass.

The inheritance relationships of classes gives rise to a hierarchy.

Multiple inheritance can be defined whereas a class can inherit from more than
one superclass. A single class can then inherit from two classes that have members
bearing the same names, but yet have different meanings.

Abstract inheritance can be defined whereas abstract classes can declare member
functions that have no definitions and are expected to be defined in all of its
subclasses.

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Object-Oriented PLD – abstraction (7)
Abstraction is simplifying complex reality by modeling classes
appropriate to the problem, and working at the most appropriate level
of inheritance for a given aspect of the problem.

For example, a class Car would be made up of an Engine, Gearbox, Steering objects, and

many more components. To build the Car class, one does not need to know how the

different components work internally, but only how to interface with them, i.e., send

messages to them, receive messages from them, and perhaps make the different objects

composing the class interact with each other.

Object-oriented programming provides abstraction through

composition and inheritance.

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Object-Oriented PLD – Encapsulation
and Information Hiding (8)
 Encapsulation refers to the bundling of data members and member functions
inside of a common “box”, thus creating the notion that an object contains its
state as well as its functionalities

 Information hiding refers to the notion of choosing to either expose or hide

some of the members of a class.

 Encapsulation is achieved by specifying which classes may use the

members of an object.

The reason for encapsulation is to prevent clients of an interface from depending on those parts of the

implementation that are likely to change in the future, thereby allowing those changes to be made

more easily, that is, without changes to clients.

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Object-Oriented PLD – Polymorphism (9i)
Polymorphism

A method or operator can be abstractly applied in many different situations.

If a Dog is commanded to speak(), this may elicit a bark(). However, if a Pig is commanded to

speak(), this may elicit an oink(). They both inherit speak() from Animal, but their derived class

methods override the methods of the parent class. This is overriding polymorphism.

Overloading polymorphism is the use of one method signature, or one

operator such as "+", to perform several different functions depending on
the implementation.

The "+" operator, for example, may be used to perform integer addition, float addition, list

concatenation, or string concatenation.

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Object-Oriented PLD – Polymorphism (9ii)

Many OOP languages also support parametric polymorphism, where

code is written without mention of any specific type and thus can be
used transparently with any number of new types.

C++ templates and Java Generics are examples of such parametric

polymorphism.

The use of pointers to a superclass type later instantiated to an object of

a subclass is a simple yet powerful form of polymorphism, such as used
in C++.

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Object-Oriented PLD – Examples (10)
Concerning the degree of object orientation the following distinction can
be made:

Languages that are "pure" OO languages treat everything in them consistently as an object,

from primitives such as characters and punctuation, all the way up to whole classes,

prototypes, blocks, modules, etc. They were designed specifically to facilitate, even

enforce, OO methods. Examples: Smalltalk, Eiffel, Ruby, JADE.

Languages designed mainly for OO programming, but with some procedural elements.

Examples: C++, C#, Java, Scala, Python.

Languages that are historically procedural languages, but have been extended with some

OO features. Examples: VB.NET (derived from VB), Fortran 2003, Perl, COBOL 2002,

PHP.

Languages with abstract data type support, but not all features of object-orientation,

sometimes called object-based languages. Examples: Modula-2, Pliant, CLU.

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Functional Programming Paradigm (1)

Functional programming is a programming paradigm that treats

computation as the evaluation of mathematical functions and
avoids state changes and mutable data.

It emphasizes the application of functions, in contrast to the

imperative programming style, which emphasizes changes in state.

Programs written using the functional programming paradigm are

more easily representable using mathematical concepts

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Functional PLP – Declarative (2)
General programming paradigm in which programs express the logic of a
computation without describing its control flow. I otherwords, the programs
describe what the computation should accomplish, rather than how it should
accomplish it.

Contrary to imperative programming, where a program is a series of steps and

state changes describing how the computation is achieved. Declarative PLP
includes diverse languages/subparadigms such as:
Database query languages (e.g. SQL, Xquery)

Constraint programming

Logic programming

Functional programming

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Reflective Programming (3i)
Reflection is the process by which a computer program can observe and
modify its own structure and behavior at runtime.

In most computer architectures, program instructions are stored as data -

hence the distinction between instruction and data is merely a matter of how
the information is treated by the programming language.

Normally, instructions are executed and data is processed; however, in some

languages, programs can also treat instructions as data and therefore make
reflective modifications.

Reflection is most commonly used in high-level virtual machine

programming languages like Smalltalk and scripting languages, and less
commonly used in manifestly typed and/or statically typed programming
languages such as Java, C, ML or Haskell.

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Reflective Programming (3ii)
Reflection-oriented programming includes self-examination, self-modification, and self-
replication.

Ultimately, reflection-oriented paradigm aims at dynamic program modification, which can be

determined and executed at runtime.

Some imperative approaches, such as procedural and object-oriented programming paradigms,

specify that there is an exact predetermined sequence of operations with which to process data.

The reflection-oriented programming paradigm, however, adds that program instructions can be
modified dynamically at runtime and invoked in their modified state.

 That is, the program architecture itself can be decided at runtime based upon the data, services,
and specific operations that are applicable at runtime.

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Reflective Programming (3iii)
Reflection can be used for observing and/or modifying program execution at runtime. A
reflection-oriented program component can monitor the execution of an enclosure of
code and can modify itself according to a desired goal related to that enclosure.

Reflection can thus be used to adapt a given program to different situations

dynamically.

Reflection-oriented programming almost always requires additional knowledge,

framework, relational mapping, and object relevance in order to take advantage of
generic code execution mode.

It requires the translation process to retain in the executable code much of the higher-
level information present in the source code, thus leading to more bloated executables.

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 Reflective Programming (3iv)
A language supporting reflection provides a number of features
available at runtime that would otherwise be very obscure or
impossible to accomplish in a lower-level language.

Some of these features are the abilities to:

Discover and modify source code constructions (such as code blocks,

classes, methods, protocols, etc.) as a first-class object at runtime.
Convert a string matching the symbolic name of a class or function
into a reference to or invocation of that class or function.
Evaluate a string as if it were a source code statement at runtime.

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Scripting Languages Paradigm (4i)
A scripting language is a language that allows control of another software
application.

"Scripts" are distinct from the core code of the application, as they are
usually written in a different language and are often created by the end-user.

Scripts are most often interpreted from source code, whereas application
software is typically first compiled to a native machine code or to an
intermediate code.

Early mainframe computers (in the 1950s) were non-interactive and instead
used batch processing. IBM's Job Control Language (JCL) is the archetype of
scripting language used to control batch processing.

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Scripting Languages Paradigm (4ii)
Types of Scripting Languages

Job control languages and shells

A major class of scripting languages has grown out of the automation of job
control, which relates to starting and controlling the behavior of system
programs.

Many of these languages' interpreters double as command-line interpreters

such as the Unix shell or the MS-DOS COMMAND.

Others, such as AppleScript offer the use of English-like commands to build

scripts. This combined with Mac OS X's Cocoa framework allows user to
build entire applications using AppleScript & Cocoa objects.

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Scripting Languages Paradigm (4iii)
Types of Scripting Languages – cont.
Application-specific scripting languages
Many large application programs include an idiomatic scripting language tailored
to the needs of the application user.

Likewise, many computer game systems use a custom scripting language to

express the game components’ programmed actions.

Languages of this sort are designed for a single application; and, while they may
superficially resemble a specific general-purpose language (e.g. QuakeC,
modeled after C), they have custom features that distinguish them.

An application-specific scripting language can be viewed as a domain-specific

programming language specialized to a single application.

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Functional Programming Paradigm (5)

Aspect-Oriented Programming Paradigm(i)

Aspect-oriented programming entails breaking down program logic into
distinct parts (so-called concerns or cohesive areas of functionality).

It aims to increase modularity by allowing the separation of cross-cutting

concerns, forming a basis for aspect-oriented software development.

AOP includes programming methods and tools that support the

modularization of concerns at the level of the source code
Aspect-oriented software development refers to a whole engineering
discipline.

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Logic Programming Paradigm (1)

Analysis-Coding-Execution
Algorithm :

A step-by-step problem-solving process in

which a solution is arrived at in a finite
amount of time

Steps must be simple, unambiguous

Steps must be performed in specified order
Steps must solve the problem

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 Logic Programming Paradigm (2)
Analysis-Coding-Execution cont …
Problem solving process

1. Analyze problem, design solution algorithm

2. Implement algorithm in a programming language, verify

3. Maintain program, adapting it to changes in problem

requirements

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 Logic Programming Paradigm (3)
Analysis-Coding-Execution (iii)

Analysis and
algorithm design
done apart from any
specific programming
Processing of the high-
language
level programming
language

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 Programming Languages

Lesson 4
Introducing Programming Languages

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Objectives
To introduce several different concepts of
programming

To gain experience with these concepts by

using example programming languages

To understand concepts of syntax, translation,

abstraction, and implementation

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Concepts of Programming
There are several ways to think about
computation:

a set of instructions to be executed

a set of expressions to be evaluated
a set of rules to be applied
a set of objects to be arranged
a set of messages to be sent and received

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Some Programming archetypes
Procedural
examples: C, Pascal, Basic, Fortran
Functional
examples: Lisp, ML
Object-oriented
examples: C++, Java, Smalltalk
Rule-based (or Logic)
example: Prolog

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Why so many Languages?
Most important: the choice of language depends on
how the human think about the problem.

Other considerations:
efficiency
compatibility with existing code
availability of translators

Some examples of Programming Languages

Software Development, e.g. VB.Net, Java, Eclipse, PHP
Document languages, e.g. LaTeX, Postscript
Command languages, e.g. bash, MATLAB
Markup languages, e.g. HTML and XML
Modeling languages, e.g. UML, ArchiMate,Aris

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 A Brief Chronology
Early 1950s “order codes” (primitive assemblers)
1957 FORTRAN the first high-level programming
language
1958 ALGOL the first modern, imperative language
1960 LISP, COBOL Interactive programming; business
programming
1962 APL, SIMULA the birth of OOP (SIMULA)
1964 BASIC, PL/I
1966 ISWIM first modern functional language (a
proposal)
1970 Prolog logic programming is born
1972 C the systems programming language
1975 Pascal, Scheme two teaching languages
1978 CSP Concurrency matures
1978 FP Backus’ proposal
1983 Smalltalk-80, Ada OOP is reinvented
1984 Standard ML FP becomes mainstream (?)
1986 C++, Eiffel OOP is reinvented (again)
1988 CLOS, Oberon,
Mathematica
1990 Haskell FP is reinvented
1990 Perl, Python, Ruby, Scripting languages become mainstream
s JavaScript
1995 Java Dr Joe Essien - (CSC 514) OOP is reinvented
Organization of Programmingfor the internet
Languages 91
How Programming Languages Differ (i)

Common Constructs:
basic data types (numbers, etc.); variables; expressions;
statements; keywords; control constructs; procedures;
comments; errors ...

Uncommon Constructs:
type declarations; special types (strings, arrays,
matrices, ...); sequential execution; concurrency
constructs; packages/modules; objects; general
functions; generics; modifiable state; ...

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How Programming Languages Differ (ii)
Evolution of programming paradigms

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How Programming Languages Differ (iii)
Language Levels Of Abstraction

Level Instructions Memory handling

Low level Simple machine-like Direct memory access

languages instructions and allocation

High level Expressions and Memory access and

languages explicit flow of allocation through
control operators

Very high Fully abstract Fully hidden memory

level machine access and
languages automatic allocation

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How Programming Languages Differ (iv)

Difference in Boolean expressions

 A relational operator between two arithmetic expressions
asks to determine if a relationship exists between the two
expressions
 For example,
xValue < yValue

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 BASIC
Beginner's All purpose Symbolic Instruction Code
Easy to learn and use for non-science students and as a path
to Fortran and Algol
Must be ”pleasant and friendly"
Fast turnaround for homework
Free and private access
User time is more important than computer time

Well-suited for implementation on first PCs, e.g.,

Gates and Allen’s 4K Basic interpreter for the MITS
Altair personal computer (circa 1975)

Current popular dialects: Visual BASIC, VB.NET

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FORTRAN (FORmula
TRANslator)
John Backus (1953) sought to write programs in conventional
mathematical notation, and generate code comparable to good
assembly programs.
John Backus’s team at IBM developed FORTRAN in 1955-1957.
No language design effort (made it up as they went along).
Most effort spent on code generation and optimization.
While FORTRAN was designed for numerical computation, it
included control structures, conditions and input/output.
FORTRAN’s popularity led to FORTRAN II in 1958, FORTRAN
IV in 1962, its standardization in 1966, revised standards coming
out in 1977 and 1990. The last standard is FORTRAN 2003

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Fortran … (Hello World program)
Innovations
 Symbolic notation for subroutines and functions
 Assignments to variables of complex expressions
 DO loops
PROGRAM HELLO
 Comments DO 10, I=1,10
 PRINT *,'Hello World'
Input/output formats
10 CONTINUE
 Machine-independence STOP
Successes END

 Easy to learn; high level

 Promoted by IBM; addressed large user base
 (scientific computing)
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 Algol … (Hello World)
Environment of development:
1. Many other languages were being developed, all for
specific machines
2. No portable language; all were machine-dependent
3. No universal language for communicating algorithms
Goals of the language:
1. Must be translatable to machine code
2. Close to mathematical notation
BEGIN
3. Good for describing algorithms FILE F (KIND=REMOTE);
EBCDIC ARRAY E [0:11];
REPLACE E BY "HELLO WORLD!";
WHILE TRUE DO
BEGIN
WRITE (F, *, E);
END;
END.

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APL
A Programming Language
Designed by K.Iverson at Harvard in late 1950’s
A language for programming mathematical
computations
especially those using matrices
Functional style and many whole array operations
Drawback is requirement of special keyboard

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COBOL (COmmon Business Oriented Language)
History
 Designed by committee of US computer manufacturers
 Targeted business applications
 Intended to be readable by managers (!)
Innovations
 Separate descriptions of environment, data, and processes
Successes
 Adopted as de facto standard by US DOD
 Stable standard for 25 years
 Still the most widely used PL for business applications (!)

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“Hello World” in COBOL
000100 IDENTIFICATION DIVISION.
000200 PROGRAM-ID. HELLOWORLD.
000300 DATE-WRITTEN. 02/05/96 21:04.
000400* AUTHOR BRIAN COLLINS
000500 ENVIRONMENT DIVISION.
000600 CONFIGURATION SECTION.
000700 SOURCE-COMPUTER. RM-COBOL.
000800 OBJECT-COMPUTER. RM-COBOL.
001000 DATA DIVISION.
001100 FILE SECTION.
100000 PROCEDURE DIVISION.
100200 MAIN-LOGIC SECTION.
100300 BEGIN.
100400 DISPLAY " " LINE 1 POSITION 1 ERASE EOS.
100500 DISPLAY "HELLO, WORLD." LINE 15 POSITION 10.
100600 STOP RUN.
100700 MAIN-LOGIC-EXIT.
100800 EXIT.

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LISP - LISt Processing language
AI research needed a language that:
Process data in lists (rather than arrays)
Handles symbolic computation (rather than numeric)

Syntax is based on the lambda calculus.

The program is a list and can extend itself at run time by constructing
another list (recursive)and executing it.

Pioneered functional programming

No need for variables or assignment.
Control via recursion and conditional expressions.
Suited to programming in functional and logic languages

Status
Still the dominant language for AI
COMMON LISP and Scheme are contemporary dialects
ML, Miranda, and Haskell are related languages

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 PL/I
• Computing situation in 1964 (IBM's point of view)
Scientific computing
• IBM 1620 and 7090 computers
• FORTRAN
• SHARE user group
Business computing
• IBM 1401, 7080 computers
• COBOL
• GUIDE user group

IBM’s goal:
• Develop a single computer (IBM 360) and a single programming
language (PL/I) that would be good for scientific and business
applications.
• Eventually grew to include virtually every idea in current practical
programming languages.

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 PL/I
PL/I contributions:
1. First unit-level concurrency
2. First exception handling
3. Switch-selectable recursion
4. First pointer data type
5. First array cross sections
Comments:
• Many new features were poorly designed
• Too large and too complex
• Was (and still is) actually used for both scientific
and business applications
• Subsets (e.g. PL/C) developed which were more
manageable

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“Hello World” in PL/1
HELLO: PROCEDURE OPTIONS (MAIN);

/* A PROGRAM TO OUTPUT HELLO WORLD

*/
FLAG = 0;

LOOP: DO WHILE (FLAG = 0);

PUT SKIP DATA('HELLO WORLD!');
END LOOP;

END HELLO;

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 Pascal (1971)
• Designed by Wirth, who quit the ALGOL 68
committee (didn't like the direction of that
work)
• Designed for teaching structured programming
• Small, simple
• Introduces some modest improvements, such as
the case statement
• Was widely used for teaching programming ~
1980-1995.

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 C (1972-)
Designed for systems programming at Bell Labs
by Dennis Ritchie and colleagues.

Evolved primarily from B, but also ALGOL 68

Powerful set of operators, but poor type checking

Initially spread through UNIX and the availability

of high quality, free compilers, especially gcc.

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 C++ (1985)
• Developed at Bell Labs by Stroustrup
• Evolved from C and SIMULA 67
• Facilities for object-oriented programming, taken
partially from SIMULA 67, added to C
• Also has exception handling
• A large and complex language, in part because it
supports both procedural and OO programming
• Rapidly grew in popularity, along with OOP
• ANSI standard approved in November, 1997

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 Program in C++ language
1 /* This program reads two integer numbers from the
2 keyboard and prints their product.
3 */
4 #include <iostream.h>
5
6 int main (void)
7 {
8 // Local Declarations
9 int number1;
10 int number2;
11 int result;
12 // Statements
13 cin >> number1;
14 cin >> number2;
15 result = number1 * number2;
16 cout << result;
17 return 0;
18 } // main

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 Smalltalk (1972-80)
• Developed at Xerox PARC by Alan Kay and colleagues
(esp. Adele Goldberg) inspired by Simula 67

• First compilation in 1972 was written on a bet to come up

with "the most powerful language in the world" in "a single
page of code".

• In 1980, Smalltalk 80, a uniformly object-oriented

programming environment became available as the first
commercial release of the Smalltalk language

• Pioneered the graphical user interface everyone now uses

• Industrial use continues to the present day

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 Functional Programming
Functional Programming is concerned with viewing a
program as a series of mathematical functions.

Introduced into programming the notions of:

◦ Initially designed as meta-language for theorem proving
◦ First class and higher order functions
◦ Polymorphism
◦ Lists
◦ Recursion
◦ Constructors
◦ Garbage Collection

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Prolog … (Hello World)
History
 Originatedat U. Marseilles (early 1970s), and compilers
developed at Marseilles and Edinburgh (mid to late 1970s)
Innovations
 Theorem proving paradigm
 Programs as sets of clauses: facts, rules and questions
 Computation by “unification”
hello :- printstring("HELLO WORLD!!!!").
 Based on formal logic
printstring([]).
 Non-procedural printstring([H|T]) :- put(H), printstring(T).

 Can be summarized as being an intelligent database system

that uses an inferrencing process to infer the truth of given
queries

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 Java
 Developed at Sun in the early 1990s
with original goal of a language for
embedded computers
 Principals:Bill Joy, James Gosling, Mike
Sheradin, Patrick Naughton
 Original name, Oak, changed for copyright reasons
 Based on C++ but significantly simplified
 Supports only OOP
 Has references, but not pointers
 Includes support for applets and a form of concurrency (i.e.
threads)

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Object-Oriented Languages
History
 Simula was developed by Nygaard and Dahl (early 1960s) in Oslo
as a language for simulation programming, by adding classes and
inheritance to ALGOL 60

Begin
while 1 = 1 do begin
outtext ("Hello World!");
outimage;
end;
End;

 Smalltalk was developed by Xerox PARC (early 1970s) to drive

graphic workstations
Transcript show:'Hello World';cr

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Object-Oriented Languages
 In object-oriented languages, data structures and
algorithms support the abstraction of data and
endeavor to allow the programmer to use data in a
fashion that closely represents its real world use.

 Data abstraction is implemented by use of

◦ Encapsulation – data and procedures belonging to
a class can only be accessed by that classes (with
noteworthy exceptions).
◦ Polymorphism – the same functions and operators
can mean different things depending on the
parameters or operands,
◦ Inheritance – New classes may be defined in
terms of other, simpler classes.

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Object-Oriented Languages
Innovations
Encapsulation of data and operations
(contrast ADTs)
Inheritance to share behaviour and interfaces
Successes
Smalltalk project pioneered OO user
interfaces
Large commercial impact since mid 1980s
Countless new languages: C++, Objective C,
Eiffel, Beta, Oberon, Self, Perl 5, Python,
Java, Ada 95 ...
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Interactive Languages
Made possible by advent of time-sharing systems (early 1960s through mid
1970s).

BASIC
 Developed at Dartmouth College in mid 1960s
 Minimal; easy to learn
 Incorporated basic O/S commands (NEW, LIST, DELETE, RUN, SAVE)

10 print "Hello World!"

20 goto 10

...

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Interactive Languages ...
APL
 Developed by Ken Iverson for concise description of numerical
algorithms
 Large, non-standard alphabet (52 characters in addition to
alphanumerics)
 Primitive objects are arrays (lists, tables or matrices)
 Operator-driven (power comes from composing array operators)
 No operator precedence (statements parsed right to left)

'HELLO WORLD'

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Special-Purpose Languages
SNOBOL
 First successful string manipulation language
 Influenced design of text editors more than other PLs
 String operations: pattern-matching and substitution
 Arrays and associative arrays (tables)
 Variable-length strings

OUTPUT = 'Hello World!'

END

...

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Symbolic Languages ...
Lisp
 Performs computations on symbolic expressions
 Symbolic expressions are represented as lists
 Small set of constructor/selector operations to create and
manipulate lists
 Recursive rather than iterative control
 No distinction between data and programs
 First PL to implement storage management by garbage collection
 Affinity with lambda calculus

(DEFUN HELLO-WORLD ()
(PRINT (LIST 'HELLO 'WORLD)))

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4GLs
“Problem-oriented” languages
 PLs for “non-programmers”
 Very High Level (VHL) languages for specific problem domains
Classes of 4GLs (no clear boundaries)
 Report Program Generator (RPG)
 Application generators
 Query languages
 Decision-support languages
Successes
 Highly popular, but generally ad hoc

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 “Hello World” in RPG
H
FSCREEN O F 80 80 CRT
C EXCPT
OSCREEN E 1
O 12 'HELLO WORLD!'

“Hello World” in SQL

CREATE TABLE HELLO (HELLO CHAR(12))
UPDATE HELLO
SET HELLO = 'HELLO WORLD!'
SELECT * FROM HELLO

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 Scripting Languages
History
Countless “shell languages” and “command languages” for operating
systems and configurable applications
> Unix shell (ca. 1971) developed as user echo "Hello, World!"
shell and scripting tool

> HyperTalk (1987) was developed at on OpenStack

show message box
Apple to script HyperCard stacks
put "Hello World!" into message box
end OpenStack
> TCL (1990) developed as embedding
language and scripting language for X
puts "Hello World "
windows applications (via Tk)

> Perl (~1990) became de facto web

scripting language print "Hello, World!\n";

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Scripting Languages ...
Innovations
 Pipes and filters (Unix shell)
 Generalized embedding/command languages (TCL)

Successes
 Unix Shell, awk, emacs, HyperTalk, AppleTalk, TCL, Python, Perl,
VisualBasic ...

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Special languages
HTML (Hypertext Markup Language)
◦ An HTML file is stored on the server and can
be downloaded by a browser.
◦ The instructions are stored with the text.
◦ Any browser can read the instructions and
format the text according to the workstation
being used.
◦ HTML lets you use only ASCII characters for
both the main text and formatting instructions.
◦ Head, Body, and Tags

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 Common tags
Beginning Tag Ending Tag Meaning
---------------- ---------------- ----------------------------
<HTML> </HTML> document
<HEAD> </HEAD> document head
<BODY> </BODY> document body
<TITLE> </TITLE> document title
<Hi> </Hi> different header levels
<B> </B> boldface
<I> </I> Italic
<U> </U> underlined
<SUB> </SUB> subscript
<SUP> </SUP> superscript
<CENTER> </CENTER> centered
<BR> line break
<OL> </OL> ordered list
<UL> </UL> unordered list
<LI> </LI> an item in the list
<IMG> an image
<A> </A> an address (hyperlink)

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The future?
Dynamic languages
◦ very active
Domain-specific languages
◦ very active
Visual languages
◦ many developments, but still immature
Modeling languages
◦ emerging from UML and MDE …

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What you should know!
 What is a programming language?
 Discuss the reasons for studying Programming Languages
 With the aid of a diagram, illustrate and discuss the
programming language structure
 What are the concepts of Programming?
 How do Programming Languages differ?
 List four Programming Language Archetypes
 List and Discuss the four Paradigms of PL
 Distinguish between Declarative and Non- Declarative PL
 What is Polymorphism, Inheritance and Encapsulation?
 What are programming Language Levels of abstraction?

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Programming Languages

Lesson 5
Statements and Constructs

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How to write a program task
Decide what the task is about (objectives)
Decide steps needed to complete the task
Write the steps in pseudocode (written in
English) or as a flowchart (graphic symbols)
Translate into the programming language
Test the program and fix errors (debug)

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The composition of a typical imperative
program or program unit

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What is pseudocode?
List of steps written in English
Like the instructions for a recipe
Must be in the right sequence
Imagine saying “bake the cake” and then “mix it up”

Sample of Pseudo code

Task: add two numbers Pseudocode:
Start
Get two numbers
Add them
Print the answer
End

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What does a flowchart look like?
The pseudocode from the previous slide
would look like this as a flowchart:

Start
Print answer
Get 2 numbers
End
Add them

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What are flowchart symbols?
Used at the beginning and
START/END end of each flowchart.

Shows when information/data

INPUT/OUTPUT comes into a program or is
printed out.

PROCESS Used to show calculations,

storing of data in variables,
and other “processes” that
take place within a program

DECISION Used to show that the

program must decide whether
is true or false. YES and NO
(or T/F) branches are shown.

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Another Sample: Calculating Age
Flowchart
Start

Pseudocode:
Get yr
◦ Start
◦ Get year born Calc age
◦ Calculate age
◦ Print age Print age
◦ If age > 50 print OLD
◦ End Y
OLD Age>50?

N
End

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Command, Syntax and Data
Programming languages have rules about
semantics, mnemonics and expressions.

Data Types
Integer: Whole numbers
Real (float): Numbers with fractions
Character: Symbols
Boolean: True/false

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Arrays
An array is a named
collection of homogeneous
items in which individual
items are accessed by their
place within the collection.

◦ The place within the

collection is called an index

Array variable of ten

Things accessed from 0..9

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 Elements of a Program (1)
 Allprogramming languages have certain features in
common. For example:
◦ Variables
◦ Commands/Syntax (the way commands are structured)
◦ Loops
◦ Decisions
◦ Functions
 Each programming language has a different set of rules
about these features.

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Elements of a Program (2)
Variables are part of almost every program.

A variable is a “place to put data” and is usually represented

by a letter or a word.

Variable names cannot contain spaces.

Some programming languages have very specific limits on

variable names.
Usually there are several ways to put information into a
variable. The most common way is to use the equal sign (=).

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Elements of a Program (3)
Variable Declarations
 Sometimes you must specify the type of data that will
be placed in a variable.

 Here are some examples of data types:

◦ Numeric (numbers of all kinds)
◦ String (text, “strings of letters”)
◦ Integer (whole numbers)
◦ Long (large numbers)
◦ Boolean (true/false)

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Elements of a Program (4)
Variables
Variables may be classified as global or local.
A global variable is one that can be shared
by all parts of a program, including any
functions or sub-programs.
A local variable is one that is used only
within a certain part of the program, for
example, only in one function or sub-
program.

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Programming Language Constructs (1)
Encapsulation: A way of restricting access to the
internal components of an object or enforcing
information hiding.
Private
Public
Inheritance A construct that fosters reuse by allowing
an application to take an already-tested class and derive
a class from it that inherits its properties
Polymorphism The ability of a language to have
duplicate method names in an inheritance hierarchy and
to apply the method that is appropriate for the object to
which the method is applied.

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Programming Language Constructs (3)
Mapping of problem into solution

 Inheritance and
polymorphism
combined allow the
programmer to build
useful hierarchies of
classes that can be
reused in different
applications

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Loops
A loop
is a repetition of all or part of the
commands in a program.

A loop often has a counter (a variable)

and continues to repeat a specified
number of times.

A loop may also continue until a certain

condition is met (e.g., until the end of a
file or until a number reaches a set limit)

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Decisions
A program often needs to decide whether something is
true or false in order to see which way to continue.

Programs often use IF (or IF THEN or IF THEN ELSE)

statements to show a decision.
An IF statement always has a condition to check, often
a comparison between a variable and a number.

The IF statement also must specify what to do if the

condition/comparison is true.

These instructions (for “true”) may come after the

word THEN, or they may simply be listed.

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Selection Statement
For convenience, many high-level languages
include a case (or switch) statement
Allows us to make multiple-choice decisions
easier, provided the choices are discrete

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Looping Statements

The while statement is used to repeat a course of action
 Let’s look at two distinct types of repetitions

 Count-controlled loops
◦ Repeat a specified number of times
◦ Use of a special variable called a loop control variable

The number of repetitions

is controlled by an event
that occurs within the body
Flow of control
of the loop itself of while
statement

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 Guarded Commands
Many PLs have the capability to generate an efficient
implementation of a n-way branch through guarded
commands.

The guarded command technique control program

execution by transfer of control or replacement of symbolic
names in GOTO statements by the actual target addresses.

if <expr 1> goto L1

if <expr 1> goto L2
Else goto L3

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Guarded Commands - Example:

goto next
L(n-1): code for Stmt(n-1)
goto next
L(n): code for Stmt(n)
goto next
test: if (t=V1) goto L1
if (t=V2) goto L2
… if (t=V(n-1)) goto L(n-1) else goto L(n)
L1: if c goto L2
goto L3
L2: x= y+1
L3:

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Subprogram Statements
We can give a section of code a name and
use that name as a statement in another
part of the program

When the name is encountered, the

processing in the other part of the
program halts while the named code is
executed

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Subprogram Statements

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Functions
There are times when the calling unit needs to give information
to the subroutine to use in its processing
These are small routines used to perform some of the tasks.
A parameter list is a list of the identifiers with which the
subroutine is to work, along with the types of each identifier
placed in parentheses beside the subroutine name

A function generally gets information from the main program,

performs some task, and returns information back to the
program.

Functions follow the same rules of syntax, etc. as the main

program.

JavaScript code is primarily made of a series of functions.

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Coding and Debugging
Coding means writing a program in an appropriate PL

Be sure the code is exact (spelling, capitals/lower case,

punctuation, etc).
Write part of the code, try it, then write more.

Debugging means running a program to fix mistakes.

Virtually no program works the first time you run it.
There are just too many places to make errors.

Syntax errors are very common causes of errors.

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Self-Check
1 A computer program is…
◦ A series of instructions to accomplish something
◦ A TV show
◦ Written in Egyptian hieroglyphics
◦ Can be written any way you want to

2 To “compile” a program means to…

◦ Translate it into English
◦ Translate it into binary code
◦ Pile up the punch cards used for the program
◦ Run the program as it was written

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Self-Check
3 Pseudocode is…
◦ The program as it is written in a programming language
◦ The results of a program that makes secret codes
◦ The logic of a program written in English
◦ The logic of a program shown in a chart

4 A function in a program is…

◦ Something from trigonometry, like COSINE
◦ A sub-program, usually performing one task
◦ A way to check the accuracy of a program (a “function check”)

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Self-Check

5 A variable in a program is…

◦ A letter or word that represents a place to store data
◦ A decision made within a program
◦ A small sub-program used to find errors

6 Look at the flowchart section below. If the variable X is 5, what

will print (K or 1st)?

N Y
Print “K” X > 5? Print “1st”

K will be printed. The answer to the question “Is X greater than 5?” is NO, since X is equal to (not greater than) 5.

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Self-Check
7 Choose the correct flowchart symbol for each of these
statements.
 AGE>65?
 Calc. Tax
 START
 Print NAME

8 A function in a program is…

◦ Something from trigonometry, like COSINE
◦ A sub-program, usually performing one task
◦ A way to check the accuracy of a program (a “function check”)

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Challenge 1
 Try to write pseudocode and create a flowchart for a program that
calculates the average of three grades and prints the average.
 The word GOOD should be printed only if the average is more than
80.
 Possible pseudocode
◦ Start
◦ Get three grades
◦ Average them
◦ Print Average
◦ Average>80?
 If Yes, print GOOD

◦ End

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Challenge 1
START
 Possible flowchart
Get 3 grades
◦ Start
◦ Get three grades
Calc avg
◦ Average them
◦ Print Average
◦ Average>80? Print avg
 If Yes, print GOOD
◦ End Y
GOOD Avg>80?

END

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Procedural Units

Local versus Global Variables

Formal versus Actual Parameters
Passing parameters by value versus reference
Procedures versus Functions

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Programming Languages

Lesson 6
Application Domains of
Programming Languages

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Programming Domains

Scientific Programming Languages

Business Programming Languages
Systems Programming Languages
Web Programming Languages

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Programming domains (1)
Scientific Programming Languages
Mathematical computations
Games and Animation
Object and Symbol manipulation
Artificial Intelligence
Simulation

Business Programming Languages

Data processing and business procedures
Cobol, some PL/1, RPG, spreadsheets

Systems Programming Languages

Building operating systems and utilities
C, PL/S, ESPOL, Bliss, some Algol and derivitaves
Web Programming Languages
Building web based applications
HTML, PHP, Java

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Scientific Programming Languages

These applications usually involve symbolic

computation, simulation, objects, symbols and
numbers.

The most common data structure is the list, not the

matrix or array as in scientific computing and not the
record as in business computing

Artificial intelligence requires more flexibility than

other programming domains as it deals with
emulating human-style reasoning on a computer.

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Business Programming Languages
Commercial data processing was one of the
earliest commercial applications of
computers.

The U.S. Defense Dept. sponsored the effort

to develop COBOL (Common Business-
Oriented Language), which was standardized
in 1960, revised in 1961 & 1962, re-
standarized in 1968, 1974, and 1984.

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Systems Programming Languages
Assembly languages were used for a
very long time operating systems
programming because of its power and
efficiency.

CPL, BCPL, C and C++ were later

developed for this purpose.

Other languages for systems

programming included PL/I, BLISS,
and extended ALGOL.

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 Web Programming Languages
Diverse collection of languages:
Markup (e.g., HTML) – used for annotating a document in
a manner that can be distinguished from the text.

Scripting (e.g., PHP) - the language that enable the script

to run these commands and typically include control
structures such as if-then-else and while-do.

General-purpose (e.g., Java) – can be used for a wide

range of programming jobs.

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Language Evaluation Criteria
Readability – the ease with which programs
can be read and understood.

Writability – the ease with which programs

can be developed for a given program
domain.

Reliability – the extent to which a program

will perform according to its specifications.

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Language Evaluation Criteria -
Readability
Meaning of Machine Readability
A language is considered machine-readable if it can be
translated efficiently into a form that the computer can
execute.

This requires that:

A translation algorithm exists.
The algorithm is not too complex.

We can ensure machine readability by requiring that

programming languages be context-free languages.

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Language Evaluation Criteria -
Readability
Meaning of Human
Readability
Generally this requires a programming language to
provide enough abstractions to make the algorithms
clear to someone who is not familiar with the
program’s details.

As programs gets larger, making a language readable

requires that the amount of detail is reduced

This implies that changes in one part of a program

have a limited effect on other parts of the program.

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Language Evaluation Criteria -
Readability
What Contributes to Readability

There are five characteristics of programming

languages that contribute to readability:

Simplicity
Orthogonality
Control Statements
Data types and Structures
Syntax

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Language Evaluation Criteria -
Readability
What Contributes to Readability
Programming languages with a large number of basic
components are harder to learn

Most programmers using these languages tend to learn

and use subsets of the whole language.

Complex languages have multiplicity (more than one

way to accomplish an operation).
All of the following add one to the variable count in C:
count = count + 1;
count += 1; Referred to as Overloaded
count++; Operators
++count;
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Language Evaluation Criteria -
Readability
Overloading operators can reduce the clarity of the
program’s meaning

Most syntactic features in a programming language can

enhance readability:

Identifier forms – older languages (like FORTRAN)

restrict the length of identifiers, which become less
meaningful.

Special words – in addition to while, do and for, some

languages use special words to close structures such as
endif and endwhile.

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Language Evaluation Criteria - Writability
Writability must be considered within the context of the
language’s target problem domain.

E.g., COBOL handles report generating very well but

matrices poorly. The reverse is true for APL.

A large and diverse set of construct is easier to misuse than

a smaller set of constructs that are combined under a
consistent set of rules. (This is simple and orthogonal)

Should support data abstractions that a programmer is

likely to use in a given problem domain. ( e.g. binary trees)
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Language Evaluation Criteria - Reliability
Reliability is the assurance that a program will not
behave in unexpected or disastrous ways during
execution.

This sometimes requires the use of rules that are

extremely difficult to check at translation or
execution time.

Reliability and efficiency of translation are

frequently diametrically opposed.

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Language Evaluation Criteria - Reliability
Contributing Factors To Reliability
Type Checking – a large factor in program
reliability. Compile-time type checking is more
desirable. C’s lack of parameter type checking leads
to many reliability problems.

Exception Handling – the ability to catch run-time

errors and make corrections can prevent reliability
problems.

Aliasing – having two or more ways of referencing

the same data object can cause unnecessary errors.

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Cost of Use of Programming Languages
Cost of program execution
A slower program is more expensive to run on a slower computer.
In an era of faster, cheaper computer, this is less of a concern.
Cost of program translation
Optimizing compilers are slower than some other compilers designed
for student programs, which will not run as many times..
Cost of program creation, testing and use
How quickly can you get the program executing correctly.
Cost of program maintenance
How expensive will it be to modify the program when changes are
needed in subsequent years?

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Programming Language Design
New methods of program development have led to advances
in language design: These included;
Structured programming languages
Data abstraction in object-oriented languages
Compilation
Pure Interpretation
Hybrid Implementation Systems
The Compiler program that translates the high-level language program
into machine code

Other factors that have influence on programming language design are;

Computer Architecture
Programming Methodologies
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Compilers and Interpreters
A compiler produces machine code as output
and then executes the machine code in a
separate step

An interpreter translates a statement and then

executes the statement immediately

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Compiler Diagram
Parser

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Interpreter Diagram
Parser

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 Type Checking
A type system is a collection of rules for assigning type
expressions to the various parts of a program. A type checker
implements a type system or Translation Scheme.

P --> D; E
D--> D;D
D--> id :T { addtype(id.entry,T.type);}
T--> char {T.type= char;}
T--> integer {T.type=integer;}
T-->*T_1 {T.type=pointer(T_1.type);}
T--> array[num] of T_1 { T.type
=array(1..num.val,T_1.type); }

E.g. The type of an array includes the index set of an array, so a function
with an array argument can only be applied to arrays with that index set.

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 Static and Dynamic Checking of Types

A sound type system eliminates the need for

dynamic checking for type errors. A language is
strongly typed if its compiler can guarantee that the
programs it accepts will execute without type
errors.

The type of each identifier must be declared before

the identifier is used. The type checker is a
translation scheme that synthesizes the type of
each expression from the type of its sub-
expressions.

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Programming Languages

Lesson 7
Mathematical Expressions

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 Programming Logic and Mathematical
Expressions

Algebra and Boolean Logic

Binary Arithmetic and Number Systems
Combinational Logic Circuits
Sequential Logic Circuits

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 Programming Logic Systems
 Analog devices and systems process time-varying signals that can take
on any value across a continuous range.

Analog Signal

 Digital systems use digital circuits that process digital signals which
can take on one of two values, we call:
0 and 1 (digits of the binary number system)

or LOW and HIGH High

or FALSE and TRUE Low

Digital Signal

 Digital computers represent the most common digital systems.

187
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Boolean Algebra

Boolean Algebra named after George Boole who used

it to study human logical reasoning – calculus of
proposition.

Elements : true or false ( 0, 1)

Primary Operations: a OR b; a AND b, NOT a

e.g. 0 OR 1 = 1 0 OR 0 = 0
1 AND 1 = 1 1 AND 0 = 0
NOT 0 = 1 NOT 1 = 0
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 Digital (logic) Elements: Gates
 Digital devices or gates have one or more inputs and produce an output
that is a function of the current input value(s).

 All inputs and outputs are binary and can only take the values 0 or 1

 A gate is called a combinational circuit because the output only depends

on the current input combination.

 Digital circuits are created by using a number of connected gates such as

the output of a gate is connected to the input of one or more gates in
such a way to achieve specific outputs for input values.

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 Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates
Set of Elements: {0,1}
Set of Operations: {., + , ¬ }

x y x.y x y x+y x ¬x
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 NOT
AND OR
x x
x.y x+y x x'
y y

Signals: High = 5V = 1; Low = 0V = 0

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 Logic Gates
Symbol set 1 Symbol set 2
(ANSI/IEEE Standard 91-1984)
a a
AND a.b & a.b
b b

a a
OR a+b + a+b
b b

NOT a 1 a'
a a'

a a
(a.b)' & (a.b)'
NAND b b

a a
NOR (a+b)' 1 (a+b)'
b b

a a
EXCLUSIVE OR ab =1 ab
b b

Dr Joe Essien - Computer Architecture 191

 Truth Tables
Provide a listing of every possible combination of values of
binary inputs to a digital circuit and the corresponding outputs.

INPUTS OUTPUTS
… …
… …

Truth table
Example (2 inputs, 2 outputs)
inputs outputs
x y x.y x+y inputs outputs
0 0 0 0 x x.y
Digital
0 1 0 1 y circuit x+y
1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1

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 Logic Gates: The AND Gate
A
A.B
B A B A.B
0 0 0
Vcc

12 11 10 9 8
0 1 0
14 13
1 0 0
1 1 1
Truth table

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Ground

Top View of a TTL 74LS family 74LS08 Quad 2-input AND Gate IC Package

193
Dr Joe Essien - Computer Architecture
 Logic Gates: The OR Gate

A A B A+B
A+B
B 0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
Truth table

Top View of a TTL 74LS family 74LS08 Quad 2-input OR Gate IC Package

194
Dr Joe Essien - Computer Architecture
 Logic Gates: The NAND Gate
A
(A.B)'
 A
(A.B)'
B B

NAND gate is self-sufficient (can build any logic circuit with it).
Can be used to implement AND/OR/NOT.
Implementing an inverter using NAND gate: x x'

A B (A.B)'
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
Truth table

Top View of a TTL 74LS family 74LS00 Quad 2-input NAND Gate IC Package
195
Dr Joe Essien - Computer Architecture
 Logic Gates: The NOR Gate
A
B
(A+B)'  A
(A+B)'
B

NOR gate is also self-sufficient (can build any logic circuit with it).
Can be used to implement AND/OR/NOT.

A B (A+B)'
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0

Truth table

Top View of a TTL 74LS family 74LS02 Quad 2-input NOR Gate IC Package

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Dr Joe Essien - Computer Architecture
 Logic Gates: The XOR Gate

A B AB
A
AB 0 0 0
B
0 1 1
Vcc 1 0 1
14 13 12 11 10 9 8
1 1 0
Truth table

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Ground

Top View of a TTL 74LS family 74LS86 Quad 2-input XOR Gate IC Package

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Dr Joe Essien - Computer Architecture
 Drawing Logic Circuits
When a Boolean expression is provided, we can
easily draw the logic circuit.
 Examples:

F1 = xyz'
(note the use of a 3-input AND gate)

x
y F1

z z'

Exam Type question

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Dr Joe Essien - Computer Architecture
 Analyzing Logic Circuits

 When a logic circuit is provided, we can analyze the circuit to obtain

the logic expression.
 Example: What is the Boolean expression of F4?

F4 = (A'B'+C)'

A'
B'
F4
C
A'B' A'B'+C (A'B'+C)'

Exam Type question

199
Dr Joe Essien - Computer Architecture
Programming Languages
Implementation

Lesson 8
Runtime Considerations

Dr Joe Essien - (CSC 514) Organization of Programming Languages 200

Major Issues
What is a run-time?
Major components of run-time
◦ Computational Support
◦ I/O interfacing
◦ Storage Management
◦ Tasking interfaces
◦ Exception Handling
◦ Other operating system issues
The Run-Time
Simple operations generate direct machine
language (e.g. addition)

But modern languages have many high level

constructs

PLs generate calls to hidden routines called

the run-time.

Run-time is included silently in linked

program (standard libraries used)
The Compiler Run-Time
Part of the implementation

Not available directly to program

Interface may not be documented
Special calling sequences can be used
Special operating system interface

Delivered as part of the compiler

Computational Support
Some simple operations may not be
supported by instruction set

64-bit integer arithmetic

Conversion of fpt to integer
Overflow checking
Floating-point (emulation needed)
Long shifts
Square root
Handling Computational Support
 Need very small high efficiency
routines, might possibly be in linable

 Special calling sequences may be useful

(e.g. args in registers)

 Assembly language may be reasonable

in this case

 Implementation is target dependent

Language Considerations
Some languages have no high level
constructs, so need minimal run time
◦ For example, C, everything is done with
explicit procedure calls.

But other languages, e.g.

◦ C++ (stream operations)
◦ Ada (tasking)
◦ Java (automatic storage mgmt)
The Run-Time in C
Very small
◦ Usually only some computational routines.

Standard has many standard functions as part

of language
◦ These are explicit library routines
◦ Often part of the underlying OS

Command line interface needed

The Run-Time in Ada
Much more extensive
Tasking
Timing
Storage Management
Conversions (e.g. string to fpt)

Requires extensive library

Only partly target dependent
Other Languages
C++ nearer to C, but has
◦ Streams
◦ Exception Handling

Java, more extensive, adds

◦ Storage mgmt (garbage collection)
◦ Standardized arithmetic (IEEE )
◦ Interface to JBC/JVM
Other Languages (cont)
COBOL, much more extensive
 Detailed complex I/O model
 Includes full indexed files
 SORT subsystem
 INSPECT REPLACING
 PICTURE editing
 Display and packed numeric formats
Other Languages (cont)
Very high level languages
 Setl, Python, GUILE, Visual Basic
 Set operations
 GUI operations
 High level operating systems interfaces
 E.g. COM/DCOM interfacing
 Web interfacing
I/O interface
Language may have explicit I/O
statements, or rely on proc interface

In either case, have to map the language

notion of I/O to op sys
 End of line (record vs stream)
 Notion of file system (directories?)
 Exception handling
 Character sets (esp wide chars)
Implementing the I/O Interface
Two parts
 Target independent code
 Target dependent code

Target Independent code

 Simply implements the language semantics
 Using some abstractions
Target Dependent I/O

On top of operating system

 Map language semantics to OS

semantics, deal with differences as well
as possible.
 On a bare board, have to actually
implement basic I/O
 Perhaps at the port level
 Basically compiler includes an O/S
Storage Management
 Stack Allocation
 Heap Allocation
 Controlled Allocation
 Automatic Garbage
Collection
Stack Management
Stack must be allocated for each task in the
program

 Usually handled by operating system

 Have to worry about size of stack
 How/whether to extend it as needed
 How/whether to check stack overflow
 May or may not be language required
Heap Management
Basic semantics is Allocate/Free

 Parameters for allocation

 Size in bytes
 Alignment (often just use max alignment as
required for example in C by malloc)
 Parameters for free
 Probably just address (but perhaps size and
aligmnent as well, as in Ada)
Heap Algorithms
 Many algorithms available
◦ Free list
◦ Multiple free lists
◦ Binary allocator
 Performance considerations
◦ Average case time
◦ Worst case time (real-time critical)
◦ Fragmentation considerations
OS Heap Allocation
 Typical O/S provides malloc/free
 Malloc takes size in bytes
◦ Returns max aligned address
 Free takes address
 Optimized for average performance
 Often algorithm is not documented
Commit Strategies
 Physical Allocation
 Virtual Allocation
◦ Storage committed at allocate time
◦ Storage committed at use time
 Overflow checking
◦ Indication of out of memory
◦ Difficulties with commit on use
 Specialized Strategies
 Trade off fragmentation with time
performance.

 Fragmentation
◦ Internal, block allocated is larger than
needed by the allocation request
◦ External, storage available, but not
contiguous.
BinaryAllocator Performance
Issues
 Internal Fragmentation
◦ Need 40 bytes, get 64 bytes, 24 wasted
 External Fragmentation
◦ May have 2 non-contiguous 128 byte
blocks, but cannot allocate 256 bytes
 Performance
◦ Bounded (at most K allocation steps)
Controlled Allocation
 In C++, constructors automatically allocate
storage, destructors free storage.

 In Ada, controlled type Initialize allocates,

Finalize frees storage.

 Can be used for other than storage issues,

but 99% of time usage is for allocate/free
of memory
Implementing Controlled Storage
 Compiler inserts automatic calls to constructors and
destructors

 In GNAT, you can use –gnatG to see this happening in

the expanded code.

 Constructors/destructors contain appropriate storage

mgmt calls.
Automatic Garbage Collection
 Allocate storage as needed
 Free storage automatically when no
longer needed.
◦ Concept of reach-ability
◦ Can garbage collect when non-reachable.
 Possibly compact storage
◦ Considerations of adjusting pointers
Determining Blocks in Use
 Assume that we can tell what blocks are
currently allocated.
 We have certainly starting points
◦ Global and local variables
◦ Register contents
◦ These are called “roots”
Tracing Blocks in Use
 Need to find all pointers in blocks in
use, and recursively trace other blocks
in use, following all pointers.
 Two approaches
◦ Conservative
◦ Type-Accurate
Conservative Tracing
 Conservative Garbage Collection
◦ If it looks like a pointer, assume it is
◦ Will never release used storage
◦ May hold onto garbage

 Type-Accurate Garbage Collection

◦ Know where pointers are
◦ Trace only pointers, knowing types
Further Steps in GC
 Once all blocks in use are traced

 Free all remaining blocks

 Possibly compact blocks in use

 Adjust pointers if compaction

◦ Requires type accurate tracing
◦ Since only pointers must be adjusted
◦ Eliminates external fragmentation
Concerns with GC
 Stop the world and GC
◦ Not good for a rocket launch!
◦ Or even for an ATM/Web use if too slow

 Parallel garbage collection

◦ GC as you go along
◦ Have a separate processor doing GC
 Requires delicate syncrhonization
Reference Counts
 Each block has a count of number of pointers
to the block.

 Copying a pointer increments count

 Destroying a pointer decrements count

 If count goes to zero, free block

 But cycles can be complete garbage and never

freed.
Tasking
 Might be done with explicit library
◦ E.g. use of POSIX threads in C
◦ No special compiler considerations
◦ Except for synchronization issues
 E.g. when stuff can be held in registers
 VOLATILE/ATOMIC considerations

 POSIX/Threads is almost standard

◦ Not perfect, some variations
◦ Not always completely implemented yet
Language Tasking Constructs
 Threads in Java
 Tasks in Ada
 Built in defined semantics
 May be more or less precisely defined
with respect to
◦ Priority handling
◦ Guaranteed performance
◦ Dispatching issues (e.g. time slicing?)
Implementing Tasking
 Map tasks onto OS threads
1/1 (each task is a thread)
Many/1 (multiple tasks to a thread)
All/1 (don’t need OS threads)

 Cannot map tasks to processes

Because of address space issues
 May be difficult to get exact semantic
equivalence.
Implementations of Exception Handling
 C++, Java and Ada share same same
basic model of exceptions.

Replacement semantics
Raise/Throw an exception
Abandons current execution
Strips stack frames
Till exception is handled/caught
Calendar/Time Issues
 Match of semantics
Time changes, daylight saving

 Formats of dates etc.

 Use for delays, alarms

 Resolution
Special target dependent capabilities
E.g. high resolution timer on NT
Certification Issues
 Safety-Critical certification
Requires complete testing
And documentation of process

 For a run-time
Must provide testing materials
Certify the process
One approach: no run-time at all!

 Applies to OS as well
WRS new certifiable kernel
In preparation for a follow up of this course
you will install the following Programming
Languages and tools on your Laptops:

Java, Eclipse, C++, C#, Visual Studio, PHP,

Microsoft Access, Oracle, Star UML,
NetBeans, Microsoft Visio, Oracle,
ArchiMate and ArisExpress
Dr. Joe Essien