Bulk Forming

Part B

1
 2

Bulk Forming Processes

Forging
Deformation process in which work is compressed
between two dies
 Oldest of the metal forming operations, dating from
about 5000 BC
 Components: engine crankshafts, connecting rods,
gears, aircraft structural components, jet engine
turbine parts
 Also, basic metals industries use forging to establish
basic form of large parts that are subsequently
machined to final shape and size
 3

Classification of Forging Bulk Forming Processes

Operations
 Cold vs. hot forging:
 Hot or warm forging – most common, due to the significant
deformation and the need to reduce strength and increase
ductility of work metal
 Cold forging – advantage: increased strength that results
from strain hardening
 Impact vs. press forging:
 Forge hammer - applies an impact load
 Forge press - applies gradual pressure
 4

Types of Forging Dies Bulk Forming Processes

 Open‑die forging
 Impression‑die forging
 Flash-less forging
 5

Open-Die Forging Bulk Forming Processes

Work is compressed
between two flat dies,
allowing metal to flow
laterally with minimum
constraint

Three types of forging: (a) open‑die forging.

 6

Impression-Die Forging
Bulk Forming Processes

- Die contains cavity or impression that

is imparted to work-part
- Metal flow is constrained so that flash
is created

Three types of forging: (b) impression‑die forging.

 7

Flashless Forging Bulk Forming Processes

Volume of blank = Volume of die

- Work-part is completely
constrained in die
- No excess flash is created
- It is also called closed die
forging

Three types of forging (c) flash-less forging.

 8

Bulk Forming Processes

Open‑Die Forging

Compression of work-part between two flat dies

 Similar to compression test when work-part has
cylindrical cross section and is compressed along
its axis
 Deformation operation reduces height and
increases diameter of work
 Common names include upsetting or upset
forging
 9

Bulk Forming Processes

Open‑Die Forging with No

Friction
If no friction occurs between work and die surfaces, then
homogeneous deformation occurs, so that radial flow is
uniform throughout work-part height and true strain is
given by:
ho
  ln
hf
where ho= starting height; and hf = height at some point
during compression
 10

Open-Die Forging with No Friction

Bulk Forming Processes

Homogeneous deformation of a cylindrical workpart under ideal conditions

in an open‑die forging operation: (1) start of process with workpiece at its
original length and diameter, (2) partial compression, and (3) final size.
 11

Bulk Forming Processes

Open-Die Forging with Friction

 Friction between work and die surfaces constrains
lateral/radial flow of work
 In hot open-die forging, effect is even more
pronounced due to heat transfer at and near die
surfaces, which cools the metal and increases its
resistance to deformation
 12

Open-Die Forging with Friction

Bulk Forming Processes

Actual deformation of a cylindrical workpart in open‑die forging,

showing pronounced barreling: (1) start of process, (2) partial
deformation, and (3) final shape.
 13

Forming force in Forging with Friction

Bulk Forming Processes

ho
  ln
h
 14

Impression‑Die Forging
Bulk Forming Processes

Compression of workpart by dies with inverse of desired part

shape
 Flash is formed by metal that flows beyond die cavity into
small gap between die plates
 Flash must be later trimmed, but it serves an important
function during compression:
 As flash forms, friction resists continued metal flow
into gap, constraining material to fill die cavity
 15

Impression-Die Forging
Bulk Forming Processes

Sequence in impression‑die forging: (1) just prior to initial contact

with raw workpiece, (2) partial compression, and (3) final die
closure, causing flash to form in gap between die plates.
 16

Advantages and Limitations Bulk Forming Processes

 Advantages of impression-die forging compared to

machining from solid stock:
 Higher production rates
 Less waste of metal
 Greater strength
 Favorable grain orientation in the metal
 Limitations:
 Not capable of close tolerances
 Machining often required to achieve accuracies and
features needed
 17

Bulk Forming Processes

Flashless Forging
Compression of work in punch and die tooling whose
cavity does not allow for flash
 Starting workpart volume must equal die cavity volume
within very close tolerance
 Process control more demanding than impression‑die
forging
 Best suited to part geometries that are simple and
symmetrical
 Often called as a precision forging process
 18

Flashless Forging Bulk Forming Processes

Flashless forging: (1) just before initial contact with workpiece, (2)
partial compression, and (3) final punch and die closure.
 19

Force analysis in open die forging Bulk Forming Processes

Considering ideal condition:

Force:
As D/h increases, the frictional force increases, so a shape factor
Kf considering this effect is incorporated
where D & h are the instantaneous dia and
height
 20

Example 19.2 Bulk Forming Processes

 21

Example 19.2 Bulk Forming Processes

 22

Bulk Forming Processes

Extrusion
Compression forming process in which work metal is
forced to flow through a die opening to produce a
desired cross‑sectional shape
 Process is similar to squeezing toothpaste out of a
toothpaste tube
 In general, extrusion is used to produce long parts of
uniform cross sections
 Two basic types:
 Direct extrusion
 Indirect extrusion
 23

Direct Extrusion Bulk Forming Processes

Direct extrusion.
 24

Bulk Forming Processes

Comments on Direct Diff

Extrusion
b/w butt & extrudate?
 Also called forward extrusion
 As ram approaches die opening, a small portion of
billet remains that cannot be forced through die
opening
 This extra portion, called the butt, must be separated
from extrudate by cutting it just beyond the die exit
 Starting billet cross section usually round
 Final shape of extrudate is determined by die opening
 25

Hollow and Semi-Hollow Shapes

Bulk Forming Processes

(a) Direct extrusion to produce a hollow or semi‑hollow cross sections; (b)

hollow and (c) semi‑hollow cross sections.
 26

Indirect Extrusion Bulk Forming Processes

Indirect extrusion to produce (a) a solid cross section and

(b) a hollow cross section.
 27

Bulk Forming Processes

Comments on Indirect Extrusion

 Also called backward extrusion and reverse
extrusion
 Limitations of indirect extrusion are imposed by
 Lower rigidity of hollow ram
 Difficulty in supporting extruded product as it
exits die
 28

Bulk Forming Processes

Advantages of Extrusion
 Variety of shapes possible, especially in hot extrusion
 Grain structure and strength enhanced in cold and warm
extrusion
 Close tolerances possible, especially in cold extrusion
 In some operations, little or no waste of material
 29

Bulk Forming Processes

Extrusion Ratio
Also called the reduction ratio, it is defined as
Ao
rx 
Af
where rx = extrusion ratio; Ao = cross-sectional
area of the starting billet; and Af = final cross-
sectional area of the extruded section
 Applies to both direct and indirect extrusion
 30

Extrusion Die Features

Bulk Forming Processes

(a) Definition of die angle in direct extrusion; (b) effect of die angle
on ram force.
 31

Bulk Forming Processes

Orifice Shape of Extrusion Die

 Simplest cross section shape is circular die orifice
 Shape of die orifice affects ram pressure
 As cross section becomes more complex, higher
pressure and greater force are required
 32

Complex Cross Section Bulk Forming Processes

A complex extruded cross section for a heat sink

 33

Analysis of Extrusion Bulk Forming Processes

Extrusion ratio: ; True strain:

Pressure required for extruding against certain ratio rx:
Based on ideal work
Where
• There is friction between the die and material, which also cause
straining of material. Thus actual strain given by Johnson’s empirical
relation:
• where a and b are constants with a=0.8 and b 1.2 to 1.5. a and b tend to
increase with increase of die angle
• Thus for INDIRECT EXTRUSION: (a)
will be calculated by ideal true strain
• In DIRECT EXTRUSION, there is friction between the container and
material. How much is the friction force and pressure required to
overcome this friction? (b)
 34

Analysis of Extrusion Bulk Forming Processes

Sticking occurs when friction stress ≥ shear yield strength of material:
, Ys is shear yield strength and equals to
Putting these values in Eq (b);
Finally, the pressure for direct extrusion can be determined by adding p f in
Eq (a):
p= +
= + =
Force required in any type of extrusion =
Power required =
 35

Force pattern with change in contact Bulk Forming Processes

length L

The force in direct extrusion depends on L . F decreases as L decreases. F again increases at the end due
to BUTT (over estimation of equations). L is the length of un-deformed billet in contact with container wall
 36

Example 19.3 Bulk Forming Processes

-

Soln: Let us examine pressure at various lengths, 75 mm, 50mm, and 25 mm

For L= 75 mm

For L= 0, Hypothetical equals to

indirect extrusion
 37

Bulk Forming Processes

Wire and Bar Drawing

Cross‑section of a bar, rod, or wire is reduced by
pulling it through a die opening
 Similar to extrusion except work is pulled through
die in drawing (it is pushed through in extrusion)
 Although drawing applies tensile stress, compression
also plays a significant role since metal is squeezed
as it passes through die opening
 38

Wire and Bar Drawing

Bulk Forming Processes

Convergent-divergent die shape

Drawing of bar, rod, or wire.
 39

Bulk Forming Processes

Area Reduction in Drawing

Change in size of work is usually given by area
reduction:

Ao  Af
r
Ao

where r = area reduction in drawing; Ao = original

area of work; and Af = final area of work
Analysis of Drawing Process 40

Bulk Forming Processes

Power required for drawing: F.v; v is exit velocity Based on ideal work
Stress due to ideal deformation:
Force required:
Ao and Af are the wire x-section area before and after drawing
μ is co-efficient of friction
α is half die angle
Drawing stress considering friction:
Average flow stress:
K is strength coefficient
n is hardening exponent
Factor for inhomogeneous deformation:
Average diameter: D= (DO+Df)/2
Length of contact:
 41

Maximum Reduction in Drawing

Ignoring friction, drawing stress is:

Say there is no strain hardening

σd =

This means Ln (1/1-r) = 1 (mean ɛmax =1)

rmax = 0.632
This relation ignores the effect of friction and strain hardening.
Therefore, practically
rmax = 0.5 for single draft bar drawing
rmax = 0.3 for multiple draft wire drawing

Single draft means drawing is completed in one pass

 42
Example Problem 19.4
 43

Features of a Draw Die Bulk Forming Processes

 Entry region – Does not contact with work, It funnels lubricant into
the die to prevent notching of work and die
 Approach - cone‑shaped region where drawing occurs
 Bearing surface - determines final stock size
 Back relief - exit zone - provided with a back relief angle
(half‑angle) of about 30
 Die materials: tool steels or cemented carbides
 44

Bulk Forming Processes

Preparation of Work for Drawing

 Annealing – to increase ductility of stock
 Cleaning - to prevent damage to work surface and
draw die
 Pointing – to reduce diameter of work at starting
end to allow insertion through draw die
 45

Bulk Forming Processes

Home Assignment 2
 Chapter
 19.4,19.16 (Relating Forging)
 19.23, 19.27, 19.29 (Relating Extrusion)
 19.37,19.38, 19.39 (Relating Drawing)