LOGICAL OPPOSITION

Presentation by GROUP 1
 LOGIC OPPOSITION

It refers to the relationship existing between two

proposition having the same subject and the same
predicate but differ in quantity or in quality or both
quantity or quality

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 KINDS OF INFERENCE
Refers to the act to process of deriving logical conclusions or making
educated guesses based on available evidence or reasoning

TYPES
1.DEDUCTIVE INFERENCE
It refers to coming to specific conclusions from a set of general
premises .
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 Example 1
Premises: All birds have feathers.
Penguins are birds
Conclusion: Therefore, penguins have feathers
Example 2
Premises: If it rains, then the streets get wet. It’s raining.
Conclusion: Therefore, the streets are wet.

2. INDUCTIVE INFERENCE
It refers to the ability to make generalizations from specific observations.
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 Example 1
Observation: You’ve just eaten at a restaurant five times, and each time the
food has been delicious.
Generalization: Therefore, the food at this restaurant is always good.
Example 2
Observation: Every winter that you’ve experienced has been
cold.
Generalization: Therefore, every winter is cold

3. ABDUCTIVE INFERENCE
Is a form of logical inference which starts with an observation or set of
05 observations and then seeks the simplest and most likely explanation
 Example 1
Observation: The grass is wet.
Best Explanation: It rained last night.
Example 2
Observation: You come home to find your house in disarray with
items scattered around,
Best Explanation: A burglary took place while you were out.

4. STATISTICAL INFERENCE
This is used in economics, mathematics, and quantitative research to
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produce generalizations and models.
 Example 1
Descriptive Statistics: A company might survey a sample of its
customers about their satisfaction with the company’s products.The
average satisfaction score among those surveyed is a descriptive
statistic that summarizes the data.
Example 2
Inferential Statistics (Confidence Intervals): A pharmaceutical
company tests a new drug on a small group of volunteers. The
average improvement in symptoms serves as the basis for a
confidence interval, from which the company predicts the range
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within which the average improvement for the entire population of
patients (if all were treated) would fall.
 5. CAUSAL INFERENCE
Causal inference is the process of drawing a conclusion about a
causal connection, that is, cause and effect.

Example 1
Observation: Smoking rates increase. Lung cancer rates also increase.
Possible Causal Inference: Smoking might cause lung cancer.
Example 2
Observation: A city introduces a bike sharing program. The number
of bike accidents in the city increases.
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 Possible Causal Inference: The introduction of the bike sharing
program may have caused an increase in bike accidents.

6. ANALOGICAL INFERENCE
Is a type of reasoning that involves drawing conclusions based on the
perceived similarity between separate cases.

Example 1
Observation: Animals that are mammals usually give birth to live
young. Dogs are mammals.
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Analogical Inference: Dogs likely give birth to live young.
 Example 2
Observation: You studied diligently for your math test and scored an
A.
Analogical Inference: If you study diligently for your physics test,
you will likely score an A.

7. INVALID INFERENCE
It refers to a type of logical fallacy where the conclusion drawn does
not logically follow from the premises. We might also call this a
logical fallacy.
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 Example 1: Affirming the Consequent
This is a logical fallacy where the consequent of a conditional
statement is affirmed, leading to the affirmation of the antecedent.

For instance:
Premise: If it is raining, then the ground is wet.
Observation: The ground is wet.
Invalid Inference: Therefore, it is raining.
The fallacy here is that there are other reasons why the ground could
be wet (for instance, someone could’ve spilled water).
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 Example 2: Denying the Antecedent
This is a logical fallacy where the antecedent of a conditional
statement is denied, leading to the denial of the consequent.

For instance:
Premise: If John is a bachelor, then John is unmarried.
Observation: John is not a bachelor.
Invalid Inference: Therefore, John is not unmarried.

The fallacy here is assuming that being a bachelor is the only way
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John can be unmarried. He could be divorced or widowed and still be
unmarried.
 FOUR KINDS OF LOGICAL
OPPOSITION
• CONTRARY OPPOSITION
• CONTRADICTORY OPPOSITION
• SUB-CONTRARY OPPOSITION
• SUB-ALTERN OPPOSITION
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 CONTRARY OPPOSITION
• One which exist between two universal
proposition that differ in quality
• Two propositions with the same subjects and
predicates but differ qualities and having the
same universal quantities

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 RULES
A. CONTRARY PROPOSITIONS CANNOT BE TRUE TOGETHER
B. CONTRARY PROPOSITIONS CAN BE FALSE TOGETHER

EXAMPLES
A: All cats are dogs (F) A: All diamonds are gems (T)
E: No cats are dogs (T) E: No diamonds are gems (F)

A: All flowers are roses (F)

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E: No flowers are roses (F)
 CONTRADICTORY OPPOSITION
• One which exist between two proposition that
differ in both quality or quantity
• Two propositions with the same subjects and
predicates but different in quantites and in
qualities

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 RULES
A. CONTRADICTORY PROPOSITION CANNOT BE TRUE TOGETHER
B. CONTRADICTORY PROPOSITION CANNOT BE FALSE TOGETHER.
EXAMPLE
A: All dogs are animals. (T)
O. Some dogs are not animals (F)

E: No women are married (F)

17 I: Some women are married (T)
 SUB-CONTRARY PROPOSITION

• One which exist between two particular

propositions that differ only in quality
• Two particular propositions with the same
subjects and predicates but different qualities

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 RULES
A. SUB-CONTRARY PROPOSITION CANNOT BE FALSE TOGETHER.
B. SUB-CONTRARY PROPOSITION MAY BE TRUE TOGETHER.

EXAMPLES
I: Some basketball players are tall (T) O: Some triangles are not squares (T)
0: Some basketball players are not tall I: Some triangles are squares (F)

I: Some students are present (F)

19 O: Some students are not present (T)
 SUB-ALTERN OPPOSITION
• One which exist between two propositions that
differ in quality
• Two propositions with the same subjects and
predicates both with the same qualities and
different only in qualities.

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 RULES
A. SUB-ALTERN PROPOSITION CANNOT BE FALSE TOGETHER
B. SUB-ALTERN PROPOSITION CAN BE TRUE TOGETHER.

EXAMPLES
A: All dogs are animals (T)
I: Some dogs are animals (T)

21 E: No cats are dogs (T)

O: Some cats are not dogs. (T)
 SQUARE OF OPPOSITION

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 LAWS GOVERING LOGICAL
OPPOSITION
• Law of Contraindication
• Law of Contrariety
• Law of Sub-Alternation
• Law of Sub-Contrariety
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 LAW OF CONTRAINDICATION
Two contradictory propositions cannot be both true and both false at
the same time.

* If A is true, O is false * If E is true, I is false

* If A is false, O is true * If E is false, I is true
* If O is true, A is false * If I is true, E is false
* If O is false, A is true * If I is false, E is true
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 LAW OF CONTRARIETY
States that two contrary propositions cannot be both true but they may
be both false at the same time.

* If A is true, E is false
* If E is true, A is false
* If A is false, E is doubtful
* If E is false, A is doubtful

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 LAW OF SUB-ALTERNATION
a) States that the truth of the universal carries or implies the truth of the
particular but not vice versa.

* If A is true, I is true
* If E is true, O is true
* If I is true, A is doubtful
* If O is true, E is doubtful

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 LAW OF SUB-ALTERNATION
b) States that the falsity of the particular carries or implies the falsity of
the universal but not vice versa.

* If I is false, A is false
* If O is false, E is false
* If A is false, I is doubtful
* If E is false, O is doubtful

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 LAW OF SUB-CONTRARIETY
States that two contrary propositions can’t be both false but they maybe
both true at the same time.

* If I is false, O is true
* If O is false, I is true
* If I is true, O is doubtful
* If O is true, I is doubtful

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REFERENCES:
https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/logical-opposition-social-philosophy-and-
logic/46078477#14
https://quizlet.com/321702143/the-square-of-opposition-diagram/
https://www.studymode.com/essays/4-Laws-Governing-Logical-Oppositions-
1059060.html#google_vignette
https://helpfulprofessor.com/types-of-inference/
THANK YOU