Shaping Future Transport Systems

TRAN5015M
Wednesday 1st November 2023

AIR QUALITY: Trends & Policy

@DrGaryFuller | twitter 10/10/2018

https://pbs.twimg.com/media/DpIz6waWkAAbY82.jpg
Dr James TATE
Institute for Transport Studies (ITS)
Email: j.e.tate@its.leeds.ac.uk
Twitter: drjamestate
Office: ITS 2.16
 AIMS
Contents

1. Understand the trends in Air Quality across the UK and EU

2. Understand the trends in Real Driving Emissions (RDE)
3. Appreciate how Industry influence and respond to legislation
4. Introduce and critique air quality policies and action plans
5. Appreciate how research evolves from identification of knowledge
gaps, through research design and delivery, to influencing public
opinion and policy

Interactive sessions:
1. “Exploring” the mobility and air quality impacts of COVID-19 in 2020
2. Developing a Cities vehicle emission monitoring strategy
 AIR QUALITY
Background
•It has long been established that exposure to air pollutants can have
a detrimental impact upon health (National Audit Office, 2009)
•The latest evidence suggests that the number of premature deaths
caused by air quality has been under-estimated
•Costs of air quality (under) estimated at £8-20 billion p.a.
“Greater gains in life expectancy achieved by tackling air quality than are currently being realised by
efforts to eliminate road deaths and passive smoking combined.”

•The UK and European Union aims to achieve levels of air quality that
do not result in unacceptable impacts on, and risks to, human health
and the environment.
•European policies aim to improve air quality by setting various
legally binding limit values and target reductions for different air
pollutants.
 AIR QUALITY
Standards

https://uk-air.defra.gov.uk/assets/documents/National_air_quality_objectives.pdf
 AIR QUALITY
Standard Terminology

•Limit values
•Legally binding parameters that must not be exceeded.
•Set for individual pollutants.
•Comprise a concentration value, an averaging time period, a number of
excedences allowed per year (if any), and a date by which it must be
achieved.
•Some pollutants have more than one limit value.
•Target values
•Similar to limit values.
•To be attained where possible taking all necessary measures not entailing
disproportionate costs.
 UK AIR QUALITY
STANDARDS
Nitrogen dioxide
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2):
• 200 µg.m-3 (1 hour mean), not to be exceeded more than 18 times per
year and achieved by 31 December 2005.
(EU Directive: 1 January 2010)
• 40 µg.m-3 (annual mean) achieved by 31 December 2005.
(EU Directive: 1 January 2010)

NOTE:
• UK mirror European standards (http://ec.europa.eu/environment/air/quality/standards.htm)
• World Health Organisation (WHO) guidelines similar for key pollutants i.e.
Particulate matter (PM10) and Nitrogen dioxide (http://www.who.int/topics/air_pollution/en/)
NOTE: The WHO website is an excellent resource of interactive material on a wide
range of topics including air quality
WHO AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES
(AQG)
NEW report 22nd September 2021
https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/345329

Note: The UK standard is 25 and is under

review, consideration for a 12.5 target value
 AIR POLLUTION TRENDS
EUROPE (select)

Carslaw, D., Beevers, S. Westmoreland, E. Williams, M. Tate, J. Murrells, T. Stedman, J. Li, Y., Grice, S., Kent, A., Tsagatakis, I. (2011). Trends in NOX and NO2 emissions
and ambient measurements in the UK. Version 3, March 2011. http://uk-air.defra.gov.uk/reports/cat05/1108251149_110718_AQ0724_Final_report.pdf
AIR QUALITY IMPROVEMENTS
Leeds Headingley Roadside (NO2)

UK Air Quality Standard

(Legal Limit)

DEFRA AURN LEEDS Headingley kerbside (Kerbside(UKA00527):

https://uk-air.defra.gov.uk/networks/site-info?site_id=LED6
AIR QUALITY IMPROVEMENTS
London VS. Leeds (NO2)

LONDON LEEDS
Oxford Street Headingley Kerbside

Annual Average Air Quality

Standard (Limit Value)
 SOURCES
Primary & Secondary Pollutants
BACKGROUND levels
PRIMARY:
• Emitted directly to the atmosphere without undergoing any chemical transformation
• Can include evaporative, fugitive and natural sources
• Examples sources include combustion, wind-blown dust, tyre and brake wear
• Examples pollutants include CO, SO2, NOX (and directly emitted NO2), hydrocarbons,
particulate matter
SECONDARY:
• Pollutants that are not directly emitted to the atmosphere but undergo chemical
transformation
• Example pollutants ozone (O3), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), thousands of secondary species
that are photo-chemically produced, including secondary particulate matter

NOTE: Many pollutants can be both primary & secondary in origin e.g. NO2, VOCs
 Atmospheric Chemistry
OZONE & NITROGEN DIOXIDE (Basic)

Ozone (O3) formation:

O2 + sunlight (hv)  O + O
O + O 2  O3
&
NOX + VOC + sunlight (hv)  O3 (and other products)
Ozone destruction:
O3 + sunlight (hv)  O2 + O
O + O 3  O2 + O2
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) formation:
NO + O3  NO2 + O2

NOTE: Reactions take place over time and space, with rate of reactions
influenced by environmental conditions and concentrations (blend)
 SOURCE APPORTIONMENT
Primary emissions + Background levels + Atmospheric Chemistry

Carslaw, D.C. and Beevers, S.D. (2005). Estimations of road vehicle primary NO 2 exhaust
emission fractions using monitoring data in London. Atmospheric Environment, 39(1): 167-177.
 THE IMPORTANCE OF PRIMARY NO2 EMISSIONS
WHY?
Background
BACKGROUND
levelslevels
and by
and
BUSY
by BUSY
roadsroads
▶ primary
▶ primary
NO2 NO2

Carslaw, D.C. and Beevers, S.D. (2005). Estimations of road vehicle primary NO 2 exhaust emission fractions
using monitoring data in London. Atmospheric Environment, 39(1): 167-177.
 AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT
Background

•Not meeting EU limit values or UK objectives (2010 - 2015):

• particulate matter (PM10)
• nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
•Locations declared Air Quality Management Areas (AQMAs)
•The UK could be forced to pay EU infraction fines, estimates:
• £300 million; &
• £100,00 per day until resolved
•As a result of emerging scientific evidence and looming EU
fines, air quality is being given a higher priority

KEY READING:
Clean Air Strategy (DEFRA, 2019) https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/
attachment_data/file/770715/clean-air-strategy-2019.pdf
AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT AREAS
(AQMAs)
Pollutants & Objective declared

http://uk-air.defra.gov.uk/aqma/summary [October 2019]

 SOURCES
(AQMAs)
AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT AREAS

http://uk-air.defra.gov.uk/aqma/summary [October 2019]

 MAP
(AQMAs)
AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT AREAS

https://uk-air.defra.gov.uk/aqma/maps [October 2019]

 BACKGROUND
Timeline
Environmental Audit Committee (EAC) briefing December 2009
EAC published its report on air quality March 2010
Government response to the EAC report November 2010
White Paper Creating Growth, Cutting Carbon, Making Sustainable Local Transport Happen January 2011
EAC published its report on air quality October 2011
Government response to the EAC report February 2012
Diesel emissions and air quality inquiry October 2015
Volkswagen emissions scandal and vehicle type approval
http://www.parliament.uk/business/committees/committees-a-z/commons-select/
December 2015 to
transport-committee/inquiries/parliament-2015/vehicle-type-approval-15-16/ July 2016
Joint inquiry on air quality
http://www.parliament.uk/business/committees/committees-a-z/commons-select/
environment-food-and-rural-affairs-committee/news-parliament-2017/improving-air- October 2017
quality-launch-17-19/

Clean Air Strategy (DEFRA, 2019)

https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/
attachment_data/file/770715/clean-air-strategy-2019.pdf January 2019
NOX VEHICLE EMISSION STANDARDS
EU Passenger Cars
0.6
0.5
NO X (grams.km )
1

0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0

2000 2005 2010 2015 2020

Year of registration
 IN-USE
EMISSIONS
Laboratory Measurements

Fig. Chassis dynamometer and exhaust analysing equipment

Technical University of Graz (Austria):

Light-duty
Engine & Chassis dynos.
Heavy-duty
 VEHICLE EMISSION
STANDARDS
EUFig.Passenger Cars
Speed profile used for type approval
NEDC - Speedpurposes
Profile (New EU Drive-Cycle)
120
Speed (kmh )
1

20 40 60 80
0

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400

Time (seconds)

Fig. Real-world driving: The Common ARTEMIS Drive Cycle (Andre, 2004).
ARTEMIS Urban - Speed Profile
60
50
Speed (kmh )
1

40
20 30
10
0

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400

Time (seconds)
VEHICLE EMISSIONS
Conflicting Environmental Priorities

CO2

NOX PM10
 MANIPULATING THE
TESTS
Significance Spritmonitor.de
• Record mileages and
fuel purchased
• 300,000 vehicles
• 4.5 billion vehicle kms

Dings, J. 2013. Mind the Gap! Why official car fuel economy figures don’t match up to reality. Transport and
Environment, March 2013. http://www.transportenvironment.org/sites/te/files/publications/Real%20World%20Fuel%20Consumption%20v15_final.pdf
ICCT, 2014. From Laboratory to Road: A 2014 UPDATE OF OFFICIAL AND “REAL-WORLD” FUEL CONSUMPTION
AND CO2 VALUES FOR PASSENGER CARS IN EUROPE
http://www.theicct.org/sites/default/files/publications/ICCT_LaboratoryToRoad_2014_Report_English.pdf

From laboratory to road: A 2018 update of official and "real-world" fuel consumption and CO2 values for
passenger cars in Europe. https://theicct.org/publications/laboratory-road-2018-update
 REAL DRIVING
EMISSIONS
Research questions
What is the RDE performance of the operational fleet ?

Criteria:
• Measurements NOT Models
• Survey the FLEET in operation
(not detailed laboratory or PEMS testing of a small sample of vehicles)
• RDE so accounting for:
▶ Real Driving behaviour
▶ Road gradient
▶ Cold starts
▶ Auxiliary power usage
▶ Vehicle payload (passengers, luggage, commercial vehicle loading)
▶ Aftermarket modifications e.g. engine re-mapping (fuel consumption)
▶ Faulty / high-emitting vehicles
etc…
REAL DRIVING
EMISSIONS
Camera Vehicle Detector
Remote Sensing
(Number plate) (Speed andAcceleration)

UV
Source/Detector Source
IR
Emissions Analyser
(Common
Configurations)
Mirror Box Detector

ESP RSD-4600 instrument (www.esp-global.com)

CARES Project
City Air Remote Emission Sensing:
https://cares-project.eu/
 REAL DRIVING
EMISSIONS
Emission ratios
Camera Vehicle Detector
(Number plate) (Speed andAcceleration)
Remote Sensing
From peak exhaust plume conc.
® NO/CO2
® CO/CO2
® HC/CO2 & Source/Detector Source
® PM10 Emissions Analyser
(Common
Configurations)
Baseline condition in front of the vehicle Mirror Box Detector

Vehicle Fleet Information

Valid measurement Number plate record ANPR
 5 – 60 km/h → Detailed vehicle registration info.
 Sufficient CO2 plume → Annoymised DVLA type data
 Number plate record → Collaboration with www.smmt.co.uk
• vehicle type & euro category
►Site selection important • fuel type and engine capacity
® Single-lane + Traffic management • manufacturer & model
® Up-hill grade
• CO2 performance etc.
VEHICLE EMISSION TESTING
Remote sensing as part of an enhanced European
motor vehicle emission control program

H2020 Project 2019-2023

VEHICLE EMISSION TESTING
Remote Sensing (RS) surveillance
 RDE : PASSSENGER CARS
Remote Sensing NOX Spring 2015

2.5

2.0
)
1
NO X (grams.km

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0
Diesel_E0
Diesel_E1
Diesel_E2
Diesel_E3
Diesel_E4
Diesel_E5
Diesel_E6
Petrol_E0
Petrol_E1
Petrol_E2
Petrol_E3
Petrol_E4
Petrol_E5
Petrol_E6
Hybrid_E4
Hybrid_E5
Hybrid_E6
Tate, J. 2015. Remote Sensing Vehicle Emissions – ABERDEEN. Project Report, Final version 1.1: 7th April 2016. Institute for
Transport Studies, University of Leeds, UK. q
q
q
•Tate, J. 2015. Real Driving Emissions (RDE): Results from the 2015 Remote Sensing campaigns 2015 (UK). Routes to Clean Air
– Air Quality Conference – IAQM. http://iaqm.co.uk/event/routes-to-clean-air-air-quality-conference-2015/
REAL DRIVING EMISSIONS
Remote Sensing results VS established MODELS

Carslaw, D., Beevers, S. Westmoreland, E. Williams, M. Tate, J. Murrells, T. Stedman, J. Li, Y., Grice, S.,
Kent, A., Tsagatakis, I. (2011). Trends in NO X and NO2 emissions and ambient measurements in the UK.
Version 3, March 2011.
http://uk-air.defra.gov.uk/reports/cat05/1108251149_110718_AQ0724_Final_report.pdf
REAL DRIVING EMISSIONS
Diesel after-treatment systems

LNT
• Lean NOx Traps | Temporary storage on catalysts during lean operation, regenerated during
rich engine operation
DPF
• Passive re-generation (in high power/ temperature operation e.g. motorway)
• Active re-generation
SCR
• To be effective the current technology also need high temp exhaust gases

Challenges in Urban driving

• Stop / start driving – intermittent & low engine power demand
• Idling - relatively cool exhaust gases
REAL DRIVING EMISSIONS
VW “defeat” device comparison
Euro 5 2.0-litre diesel cars with EA189 engine

3.0
OTHERS:
2.5 2.0-litre diesel
engines from other
)
1

2.0 Marques
NO X (grams.km

e.g.
1.5
BMW
1.0 FORD
KIA
0.5 TOYOTA
DIESEL

0.0
Euro V Standard VAUXHALL
#AUDI

#SKODA

OTHERS
#SEAT

#VOLKSWAGEN
 REAL DRIVING EMISSIONS
Diesel manufacturer comparison

Euro III Euro IV Euro V Euro VI

2.0
1.5
(grams.km )
1

1.0
NO X

0.5

Emission standard
0.0

2000 2005 2010 2015 2020

Year of registration
 REMOTE SENSING
Manufacturer comparison

The Times | Saturday 24th October 2015

REAL DRIVING EMISSIONS
Diesel NOX emissions by marque & model
 REMOTE SENSING
Manufacturer comparison

The Sunday Times | Sunday 9th November 2015

 HELP FROM A
COMPUTER HACKER

A hacker’s review of Dieselgate | 27th December 2016

Felix „tmbinc“ Domke @tmbinc
https://media.ccc.de/v/33c3-7904-software_defined_emissions#video&t=1453
PASSENGER CARS
The TRUE index (https://www.trueinitiative.org/)
 BACKGROUND
Timeline
Environmental Audit Committee (EAC) briefing Cited December 2009
EAC published its report on air quality impact of March 2010
Government response to the EAC report ITS RDE November 2010
White Paper Creating Growth, Cutting Carbon, Making Sustainable Localresearch
Transport Happen January 2011
EAC published its report on air quality October 2011
Government response to the EAC report February 2012
Diesel emissions and air quality inquiry October 2015
Volkswagen emissions scandal and vehicle type approval
http://www.parliament.uk/business/committees/committees-a-z/commons-select/
December 2015 to
transport-committee/inquiries/parliament-2015/vehicle-type-approval-15-16/ July 2016
Joint inquiry on air quality
http://www.parliament.uk/business/committees/committees-a-z/commons-select/
environment-food-and-rural-affairs-committee/news-parliament-2017/improving-air- October 2017
quality-launch-17-19/

Clean Air Strategy (DEFRA, 2019)

https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/
attachment_data/file/770715/clean-air-strategy-2019.pdf January 2019
LEARNING FROM 2020
The Impact of Covid-19 Mobility restrictions

Ropkins, K., Tate, J. 2021. Early observations on the impact of the COVID-19 lockdown on air
quality trends across the UK. Short Communication - Science of the Total Environment 754
(2021) 142374. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142374
LEEDS HEADINGLEY KERBSIDE AURN and NEARBY

LONG-TERM
A660 AUTOMATIC TRAFFIC COUNTER

TREND
2015 - 2020

NO2CHANGES
DETECTED IN
2020

TRAFFIC FLOW
CHANGES
DETECTED IN
2020
Ropkins, K., Tate, J. 2021. Early observations on the impact of the COVID-19 lockdown on air quality trends across the UK. Short
Communication - Science of the Total Environment 754 (2021) 142374. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142374
Shaping Future Transport Systems
TRAN5015M
Wednesday 1st November 2023

AIR QUALITY: Trends & Policy

@DrGaryFuller | twitter 10/10/2018

https://pbs.twimg.com/media/DpIz6waWkAAbY82.jpg
Dr James TATE
Institute for Transport Studies (ITS)
Email: j.e.tate@its.leeds.ac.uk
Twitter: drjamestate
Office: ITS 2.16