Natural science and Health

Education 2

Exam based contact session

Tutor: MS. S.N MAKILI
ACP NSHE 12 2021
 Speed, mass and density
• Distance is the length of the path/route taken
without considering direction e.g. 200 m.
• Displacement is the distance travelled in a given
direction e.g. 200 m east.

• Speed is the rate of change of distance e.g. 200 m/s.

• Velocity is the speed in a given direction or rate of
change of distance in a given direction or rate of
change of displacement e.g. 200 m/s due south
• Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity
• Unit is m/s2.
Interpreting a velocity-time graph
What was the car doing?
a) At O – at rest/stationary/not moving
b) During OA – accelerating(positive
acceleration)
c) During AB – constant velocity
d) During BC – deceleration(negative
acceleration)
e) At C – at rest
 Calculating acceleration distance
covered from the graph
During OA – accelerating
• Acceleration = slope (gradient) of the graph
Formula:
Acceleration = change in velocity/time
a = (v – u)/t
• Distance covered = area under the graph]
Distance covered during OC = ½(a+b)h
 Mass and weight
mass weight
1. Amount of matter in an 1. is the force of gravity
object acting on an object. The
force of gravity is 10N/kg
2. Measured in kilograms (kg) 2. Measured in Newtons (N)
3. A beam balance is the because it is a force.
instrument used to 3. A spring balance is the
measure mass instrument used to
4. Mass stays the same measure weight
wherever you are 4. Weight changes depending
on where you are.
 Calculating weight from mass
Formula:
Weight = mass x gravity
w = mg
AND
mass = weight ÷ gravity
• NOTE: Mass should always be in kg
Density
•
Determining the density of a regularly
shaped solid
•
Determining the density of a liquid
•
Determining the density of irregularly
shaped solid by displacement method
•
Extension-load graphs
Limit of proportionality/elastic limit

1. Limit of proportionality/elastic limit of a

spring is the point at which when stretched
further, the spring is distorted permanently/
does not go back to its original shape and
size.
2. Spring of different materials have their own
elastic limit. This is expressed as the spring
constant, k.
Moments
The moment of a force is the measure of its
turning effects.
Moment = force x perpendicular distance
M = Fd
The unit of moment is newton metres (Nm)
Turning effect
Equilibrium conditions
1. A system is in equilibrium when:
there is no net moment on the body. If there
is a net moment the body will start to rotate.

Sum of clockwise = Sum of anticlockwise

moments moments
Fd = Fd
Major sources of energy and alternative
sources of energy
Major sources of energy:
1. Chemical/fuel energy (a regrouping of atoms)
2. Energy from water (hydroelectric, waves, tides
3. Geothermal energy
4. Nuclear energy (nuclear fission of heavy atoms)
5. Solar energy (nuclear fusion in the sun)
6. Wind energy
Forms of energy
1. Potential energy (stored energy).e.g
a) gravitational potential energy (GPE): energy
due to height e.g. water in a mountain
reservoir.
b) strain/elastic potential energy: energy stored
in stretched rubber bands, compressed spring,
stretched bow.
c) chemical potential energy: energy stored in
food, batteries, fossil fuels, nuclear fuels
Formula:
Potential energy = mass× gravity ×height
P.E = mgh
2. Kinetic energy (KE): energy due to motion
(movement)
Formula:
Kinetic energy = ½ x mass x velocity2
KE = ½mv2
Other forms of energy are;
3. Electrical energy
4. Sound energy
5. Heat energy
6. Light energy
Work and energy
1. Energy is the ability to do work. The Joule (J)
is the unit of energy.
2. Work is done when a force moves an object
in the direction of the force. For you to do
work, you must have energy. Therefore, the
unit of work done is also the Joule.
3. Formula: Work = force x distance
W = F x d or F x s
Power
Power is the speed of doing work/the rate of
doing work. The Watt is the unit of power.
Power = energy/time or work done/time
P = E/t or W/t
NOTE: Time must be in seconds
Pressure
Pressure is force acting per unit area.
Pressure is measured in N/m2 or pascal (Pa)
Relationship between pressure and force:
• Directly proportional; increasing force
increases the pressure.
Relationship between pressure and area:
• Inversely proportional; decreasing area
increases the pressure
Pressure
Pressure-force (thrust) acting per unit area
measured in Nm-2 or Pa
Formula:
Pressure = Force/Area
P = F/A
From the formula:
Pressure is directly proportional to force
Pressure is inversely proportional to area
Methods of heat transfer
1. conduction
Conduction is the flow of heat through a
material without any flow of the material.
Particles in the medium vibrate faster. This
vibration is passed on to the neighbouring
particles
2. Convection is the flow of a fluid (liquid or gas)
caused by a change in the density.
The whole medium moves and carries heat
energy with it.
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Convection in liquids
1. Heated water at the bottom is less dense,
therefore, rises.
2. Cold water at the top is denser, therefore,
sinks.
3. This sets up a convection current.

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Domestic hot water system

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3. Radiation
is the transfer of heat by electromagnetic waves
which do not need a medium.
Infra-red (IR) radiation is part of the
electromagnetic spectrum. Infra-red is simply
heat.
Heat from the sun passes through a vacuum
(space without a medium) and reaches us as
electromagnetic waves.

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Good and bad absorbers of radiation

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Good and bad absorbers of radiation
• The coin attached to the dull black surface
falls first.
This shows that dull black surfaces are better
absorbers of heat than shiny surfaces.

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Good and bad emitters of radiation

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Good and bad emitters of radiation
• The heat detector shows higher temperature
on the matt black surface than the silver
surface.
• This shows that matt black surfaces are better
emitters of heat than silver (shiny) surfaces.

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General wave properties

1. Pulse is a single disturbance in a substance.

2. Oscillations or simple harmonic motion is any
repeated to-and-fro motion of a liquid or
elastic solid, e.g. tuning fork, pendulum or
stretched spring.
3. In a wave, only energy is transferred from
one place to another, not matter.
Wavefront
Wavefront is a line that shows the position of
crest of a wave.
The diagram shows circular wavefronts
generated by dropping a stone on the water.

wavefronts
 Transverse wave
Transverse wave is a wave in which the
displacement/vibration of particles is at
90°/right angles / perpendicular to the
direction of wave motion e.g. water waves,
electromagnetic (light) waves.
Longitudinal wave
Longitudinal wave is a wave in which the
vibration/displacement of particles is
parallel/in the same direction to the direction
of wave motion e.g. sound waves.
Properties of waves
1. Speed - of the wave is the distance the wave
travels per unit time.
2. Frequency - is the number of complete
waves passing a point per unit time. The unit
of frequency is the Hertz (Hz).
3. Period - is the time taken for a wave to move
one complete wavelength. The unit of Period
is the second (s).
4. Wavelength - is the distance between
neighbouring crests or troughs or the
distance between successive points in the
wave that are in phase/step.
5. Amplitude – maximum displacement of a
particle from its rest/equilibrium position or
height of crest or depth of trough
The wave equation
Velocity = frequency x wavelength
v = fλ
NOTE: Distance must be in metres (m).
Properties of water wave
All waves can undergo:
1. Reflection
2. Refraction
3. Diffraction
Properties of light waves

1. Reflection
2. Refraction
Image formed by a thin converging
lens
1. A thin converging lens can form a real or
virtual image depending on the location of
the object from the lens.
Action of thin converging (convex) lens

A converging lens – light rays meet after passing

through a converging lens
Characteristic properties of acids and bases

Acids Bases/alkalis
1. Have H+ as the only 1. Have OH- as the only
positively charged ions in negatively charged ions in
solution solution
2. In a reaction, donate H+ i.e. 2. In a reaction, receive H+ i.e.
proton donors proton receivers
3. Turn blue litmus paper red 3. Turn red litmus paper blue
4. pH below 7 4. pH above 7
5. Sour taste 5. Bitter taste
Strong and weak acid
1. Strong acid completely ionises in solution e.g.
HCℓ (aq) → H+(aq) + Cℓ- (aq)
2. Weak acid partially ionises in solution e.g.
CH3COOH (aq) ⇌ CH3COO- (aq) + H+(aq)
NOTE: Dilution does not affect the strength of
the acid.
Strong and weak base
1. Strong base completely ionises/dissociates in
solution e.g.
NaOH (aq) → Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
2. Weak base partially ionises/dissociates in
solution e.g.
NH4OH (aq) ⇌ NH4+(aq) + OH- (aq)
NOTE: Dilution does not affect the strength of
the base/alkali.
Types of oxides
1. Neutral oxides – some non-metal oxides,
dissolve to form neutral oxides
e.g. CO, N2O, NO, SeO, SiO2
2. Amphoteric oxides - metal oxides with both acidic
and basic properties i.e. can react with both acids
and bases.
a) The metals show metalloid character e.g. ZnO, Aℓ2O3,
PbO, BeO. They react with both acids and alkalis.
b) Water (H2O) is amphoteric because it reacts with acids
and bases.
Preparation of soluble salts continue…

1. Use chemical equations and appropriate

reactants to describe the preparation of salts.
a) acid + metal → salt + hydrogen
b) acid + insoluble base → salt + water
c) acid + soluble base (alkali) → salt + water
d) acid + metal carbonate → carbon dioxide +
salt + water
 The concept of mole
1. Calculating mass of different elements, use
the formula:
mass = mole × Ar
m =n × Ar
2. Calculating mole of molecules and
compounds
moles = mass given
Mr
n = m/Mr
Water purification
1. Filtration: water is passed through screens to filter out floating
debris.
2. Filtration: coarse sand traps larger, insoluble particles.
Specially grown microbes in the sand remove some of the
bacteria.
3. Sedimentation: Chemicals called flocculants make smaller
particles stick together and sink to the bottom of the
sedimentation tank.
4. Filtration: the particles are removed by further filtration
through fine sand.
5. Chlorination: finally a little chlorine gas is added to kill any
remaining bacteria. This sterilises the water.
Physical test for water

1. Test: Determine the density of pure water:

Result: Density is 1g/cm3 or 1000kg/m3
2. Test: Heat the water to boil:
Result: Boiling point is 100°C at sea level
3. Test: Let the water ice melt:
Result: Melting point is 0°C at sea level
Chemical test for water
1. Anhydrous copper (II) sulfate
a) Test: add liquid to white/anhydrous copper
sulfate
b) Result: it turns blue
2. Anhydrous cobalt (II) chloride
a) Test: add liquid to blue/anhydrous cobalt (II)
chloride
b) Result: turns pink
 Air pollution
Pollutant Source/cause Effect on buildings\health
Carbon monoxide • The incomplete • Stops blood (red blood cells) from
combustion of carbon – carrying oxygen to the rest of the
containing substances body. A person dies due to lack of
e.g. fossil fuels. Running a oxygen.
car engine in a confined
space produces carbon
monoxide.

Sulfur dioxide • Combustion of fossil fuels • Dissolves in rain water to form acid
which contain sulphur rain. The acid rain – can damage
compounds. (limestone) statues, corrode metal
• Copper extraction – work and walls.
roasting copper pyrite
e.g. in Tsumeb.
Pollutant Source/cause Effect on buildings/health
Oxides of • Car exhausts - • Dissolves in rain water to
nitrogen combustion of form acid rain.
nitrogen at high • The acid rain – damage
temperature and (limestone) statues,
pressure in the corrode metal work and
car engine walls.

Lead • car exhausts – • Cause brain damage in

compounds from leaded fuel infants (young children)
NPK fertilisers
Fertiliser Needed for
Nitrogen (N) Strong stems and healthy leaves
Phosphorous (P) Root and seed formation
Potassium (K) To survive frost and resist diseases
Dangers of overuse of fertilisers on water
resources
Excess of dissolved fertiliser in river water can lead to
eutrophication.
Eutrophication can lead to:
1. water plants (especially algae) to reproduce rapidly and block
the waterways.
2. a thick layer of algae forming on the surface of the water stops
light reaching the plants at the bottom, this causes plant
plants to die.
3. some of the algae die and bacteria develop to feed on them.
These bacteria use up the oxygen supply in the water.
4. the fish and other forms of life that need this oxygen to
breathe die and decay, leaving bad, poisonous water.
Rate of reaction

Rate of reaction
Is a measure of the change in concentration of
reactants or products per time in a chemical
reaction.
Factors affecting reaction rates
1. Concentration
2. Temperature
3. Particle size/surface area
4. Catalyst
5. Pressure
6. light
Effect of concentration on reaction rate
When the concentration of the reactants is
increased, the rate of reaction is faster.
• Curve for high concentration is steeper than
the curve for reaction of low concentration.
- the steeper the graph curve, the faster the
rate of reaction. The less steeper, the slower
the reaction.
• Curve for high concentration flatten first than
curve for low concentration.
• Both reactions produced same volume of gas
 Effect of temperature on the rate of
reaction
• When the temperature is increased, particles
gain energy and move faster and travel greater
distance in a given time so more collisions
occurs.
• This means particles exceeds the activation
energy therefore the rate of reaction
increases.
• The graph for high
temperature is steeper ,
this indicates a faster
reaction
• The curve for low
temperature is less
steeper, this indicates a
slow reaction.
Effect of particle size/surface area
on the rate of reaction
• Small solid particles have a greater surface
area, there are more collision taking place and
the rate of reaction is faster
• the steeper the graph, the faster the reaction.
• The rate of reaction is greater with smaller
pieces and slower with bigger pieces.
• Both curves level off at the same volume,
because same mass of powder and lumps and
same volume of acid was used.
Effect of a catalyst on the rate of reaction

• A catalyst is a chemical substance that speeds

up a chemical reaction but remains
unchanged at the end of the reaction though
it may change physically.
How catalysts work
• A catalyst provides an
alternative reaction
pathway that has a
lower activation energy than
the uncatalysed reaction.
• This increase the frequency
of successful collisions
because more particles have
energy greater than the
activation energy, therefore
there are more successful
collisions.
 Effect of light on the rate of reaction
• Light affects some chemical reaction.
• In the dark these reactions take place very
slow but speed up in the presence of sunlight
• Example; -photosynthesis
-in photography
General physical & chemical properties of metals

Metals Non-metals
1. Lustrous; can be polished 1. Form basic oxides and
2. Strong and tough; high tensile amphoteric oxides
strength
2. React with acids to form salts
3. Malleable, i.e. can be made into
sheets
and hydrogen
4. Ductile, i.e. can be drawn into wires 3. Do not usually combine with
5. Solids with high melting/boiling hydrogen
points (except mercury) 4. Chlorides are ionic (i.e. non-
6. High density (e.g. mercury 13.6g/cm3) volatile, electrolytes, soluble in
7. Good conductor of heat and water and not hydrolysed by
electricity water)
8. Sonorous, i.e. make a sound when
heat
5. Reducing agents(lose electrons)

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 THE REACTIVITY SERIES
is the arrangement of metals in order of their
reactivity.

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 Reactivity series was drawn up by
carrying out the following reactions;

• Reactions of metals with cold water

• Reactions of metals with steam water
• Reactions of metals with dilute acids
• Reaction of metals with aqueous
ions of other metals
The table summarises the extraction
methods used for different metals.

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 SOME METALS AND THEIR ORES
Metal Common name of Chemical name Uses of metals
ore and formula
Aluminium Bauxite Aluminium oxide Cooking utensile
(Al2O3) Food containers
Overhead power cables
Packaging
alloys

Iron Haematite Iron (iii)oxide Magnets

(Fe2O3) Transformers core
Make alloys ( steel)
Copper Chalcopyrite Copper iron sulfide Electrical wires
(CuFeS2) Water pipes

Zinc Zinc blende Zinc sulfide Alloys (brass and bronze)

(ZnS)
Uranium Uranium oxide Uranium oxide(UO2) Generate electricity
Nuclear weapons

Lead Gelena Lead sulfide alloys ( solder,

(PbS) antifriction metals,
fusible metals)

Tin Tin oxide Tin oxide Coating other metal

(SnO2) surfaces (tin Cans)
Alloy (brass)

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 Alloys
• Mixture of metals with other elements.

• Alloys are tough and stronger than pure

metals.
• this is because the atoms of different sizes
prevent them from sliding over each other i.e.
prevent slip.

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 Methods of rust prevention
1. Painting – prevent metal get in contact with air
and moisture.
2. Oiling or greasing – protects moving parts that
can be scratched. Excludes air and moisture.
3. Alloying – iron and steel can be mixed with other
metals to form alloys that do not rust.
4. Galvanising – coating iron with zinc. It is
sacrificial protection i.e. the more reactive metal
reacts at the expense of a less reactive metal
(zinc reacts in preference to iron).
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Properties of magnets

1. A magnet has two poles; North pole and

South pole.
2. The North pole (North-seeking pole) of the
magnet points to the North pole of the Earth.
3. There are magnetic forces between magnets.

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INDUCED MAGNETISM IN TERMS OF
MOLECULAR MAGNETS
1. The theory of magnets says that magnets are made
of tiny magnets called molecular magnets.
2. In unmagnetised iron, the molecular magnets are
randomly arranged.
3. When iron is in magnetic field, molecular magnets
are aligned in same direction i.e. the iron is
magnetised.
4. When the magnetism is removed, the molecular
magnets return to their random arrangement i.e.
the iron loses its magnetism.
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FERROUS AND NON-FERROUS MATETIALS

FERROUS MATERIALS NON-FERROUS MATERIALS

1. Contain iron hence the 1. Do not contain iron hence
term “ferrous” e.g. steel, the term “non-ferrous” e.g.
iron. copper, lead.
2. They are attracted by a 2. They are NOT attracted by
magnet a magnet.

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Series connection

1. Same current at all points in the circuit.

2. Total voltage across components equals that of

the source.

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Parallel connection

80
Parallel connection
1. Current splits through branches.
2. Branch with highest resistance has the
smallest current through it.
3. Voltage across each bulb is the same as the
source.

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RESISTORS IN SERIES

1. The combined resistance of

resistors in series in the sum
of the individual resistors.
2. Connecting resistors in
series increases the
combined resistance.

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TWO RESISTORS IN PARALLEL

1. Total resistance in parallel is

less than any of the
individual resistors.

2. Connecting resistors in
parallel reduces the
combined resistance 83
ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE
1. Electromotive force (e.m.f.) of a source is the
maximum work done per unit charge. It is the
maximum voltage of the battery/cell when it
is nothing is connected to it.
2. Potential difference (p.d.) is the maximum
work per unit charge that can be done.
3. The units of both e.m.f. and p.d. is the volt
(V).

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Simple alternating current (a.c.) generator

Principle (rule): When a coil/wire cuts the

magnetic field, e.m.f. (voltage) is induced in it –
refer to electromagnetic induction!!
• For a generator, the equation is:
motion + coil + magnetic field  current (or
voltage)

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How to increase the induced e.m.f. (voltage)

1. Increase the speed of motion of the magnet

or coil or both
2. Use a stronger magnet
3. Increase the number of turns in the coil

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CALCULATING THE PERIOD OF A.C
GENERATOR

87
SIMPLE DC MOTOR
1. Principle: a wire/coil carrying current in a
magnetic field has a (moment) turning effect.
2. This is due to the interaction between the
electric and magnetic fields.
3. For a motor, the equation is:
current + coil + magnetic filed  motion

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HOW TRANSFORMERS WORK
1. The transformer works on the principle of
mutual induction.
2. Mutual induction – change in the magnetic
field in the primary coil (which is cut by the
secondary coil) induces voltage in the
secondary coil.
3. To enhance (increase) efficiency, the coil is
wound on a soft iron, not steel.

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EQUATION FOR TRANSFORMERS

90
POWER IN TRANSFORMERS
•

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 Organic compounds
• Homologous series is a ‘family’ of similar
compounds with similar properties due to the
presence of the same chemical properties and
the changing in physical properties.
• hydrocarbons (compounds made of
hydrogen and carbon,
 ESTERIFICATION
• Formation of an ester from carboxylic acid
and an alcohol.
• For example: the reaction of ethanoic acid
with ethanol to form an ester, ethyl
ethanoate. The reaction can be
represented and written as:
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