Learning

Chapter 4
 LEARNING IS MORE THAN
SCHOOL, BOOKS AND TESTS.
WITHOUT LEARNING OUR LIVES
WOULD SIMPLY BE A SERIES OF
REFLEXES AND INSTINCTS.

A Life without Learning

We would not be able to communicate, we

would have no memory of our past or goals
for the future.
Learning
Learning is a lasting change in behavior or
mental process as the result of an experience.
There are two important parts:
◦ A lasting change…a simple reflexive reaction is not
learning
◦ learning regarding mental process is much harder to
observe and study.
Learning & It’s Effect on
Behavior
In humans, learning has a much larger influence on
behavior than say instincts.
 Types of Learning
SIMPLE AND COMPLEX
LEARNING
Simple Learning
Habituation: Learning not to respond to the repeated
presentation of a stimulus.
◦ Example: Emergency sirens in the city
Simple Learning
Mere Exposure Effect: A learned preference for
stimuli to which we have been previously exposed.
◦ Ex-A coach/parent’s voice

Which do you prefer?

Which did your parents

drink when you were a
little kid?
 Complex Learning
Behavioral Learning: Forms of learning, such as
classical and operant conditioning which can be
described in terms of stimuli and responses.

◦ operant conditioning is more complex

learning.
1-Classical Conditioning
1-Classical Conditioning:
A form of learning in
which a previously
neutral stimulus (stimuli
w/o reflex provoking
power) acquires the
power to elicit the same
innate reflex produced
by another stimulus.
Ivan Pavlov and Classical
Conditioning

One of most famous people in the study of learning

is Ivan Pavlov.
Originally studying salivation and digestion, Pavlov
stumbled upon classical conditioning while he was
experimenting on his dog.
Pavlov’s Findings
Explained
Pavlov discovered that a neutral stimulus, when paired
with a natural reflex-producing stimulus, will begin to
produce a learned response, even when it is presented by
itself.
Neutral Stimulus: Any stimulus that produces no
conditioned response prior to learning.
Pavlov’s Experiment
Components of
Conditioning
There are 5 main components of conditioning. Classical
Conditioning always involves these parts.
They are:
◦ Neutral Stimulus
◦ Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
◦ Unconditioned Response (UCR)
◦ Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
◦ Conditioned Response (CR)
From Unconditioned to Conditioned
During acquisition, a neutral stimulus is paired with the
unconditioned stimulus.
◦ After several trials the neutral stimulus will gradually
begin to elicit the same response as the UCS.
Acquisition: The learning stage during which a conditioned
response comes to be elicited by the conditioned stimulus.

=
Conditioned Stimulus
A CS is the originally neutral stimulus that gains the
power to cause the response.
In Pavlov’s experiment, the bell/tone began to
produce the same response that the food once did.
Conditioned Response
A CR is a response elicited by a previously neutral stimulus
that has become associated with the unconditioned
stimulus.
Although the response to the CS is essentially the same as
the response originally produced by the UCS, we now call it
a conditioned response.
Extinction
Extinction: The diminishing (or lessening) of a
learned response, when an unconditioned stimulus
does not follow a conditioned stimulus.

◦ To acquire a CR, we repeatedly pair a neutral stimulus with

the UCS. But, if we want to reverse this learning, we must
weaken the strength of the connection between the two
stimuli.

◦ It is important to realize that extinction does not mean

complete elimination of a response.
2-Operant Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
An operant is an observable behavior that an
organism uses to “operate” in the environment.

Operant Conditioning:
A form of learning in which the probability of a
response is changed by its consequences…that is,
by the stimuli that follows the response.
 B.F. Skinner
B.F. Skinner became famous for his ideas in behaviorism and his work with rats.
Law of Effect: The idea that responses that produced desirable results would be
learned, or “stamped” into the organism.
B.F. Skinner and The Skinner
Box
Reinforcement
A reinforcer is a condition in which the
presentation or removal of a stimulus, that
occurs after a response (behavior) and
strengthens that response, or makes it more
likely to happen again in the future.

Positive Reinforcement: A stimulus presented

after a response that increases the probability of
that response happening again.

◦ Ex: Getting paid for good grades

Negative Reinforcement
Negative Reinforcement: The removal of an
unpleasant or averse stimulus that increases the
probability of that response happening again.
◦ Ex: Taking Advil to get rid of a headache.
◦ Ex: Putting on a seatbelt to make the annoying seatbelt
buzzer stop.

The word “positive” means add or apply;

“negative” is used to mean subtract or remove.
Reinforcement Schedules
Continuous Reinforcement:
A reinforcement schedule under which all correct
responses are reinforced.

This is a useful tactic early in the learning process. It

also helps when “shaping” new behavior.

Shaping:
A technique where new behavior is produced by
reinforcing responses that are similar to the desired
response.
Punishment
A punishment is an
averse/disliked
stimulus which occurs
after a behavior, and
decreases the
probability it will
occur again.
Punishment
Negative Punishment:
When a desirable event
ends or is taken away
after a behavior.
◦ Example: getting
grounded from your
cell phone after failing
your progress report,
it is the taking away
from a fun activity
Reinforcement/Punishment Matrix
The consequence The consequence
provides something takes something away
($, a spanking…) (removes headache,
timeout)

The consequence
Positive Negative makes the behavior
Reinforcement Reinforcement more likely to happen
in the future.

Positive Negative
The consequence
makes the behavior
Punishment Punishment less likely to happen in
the future.
Reinforcement vs.
Punishment
Unlike reinforcement, punishment must be
administered consistently.
Intermittent punishment is far less effective than
punishment delivered after every undesired behavior.

In fact, not punishing every misbehavior can have the

effect of rewarding the behavior.
Punishment vs. Negative
Reinforcement
Punishment and negative reinforcement are used
to produce opposite effects on behavior.
◦ Punishment is used to decrease a behavior or reduce its probability of
reoccurring.
◦ Negative reinforcement always increases a behavior’s probability of
happening in the future (by taking away an unwanted stimuli).

*Remember, “positive” means adding something and

“negative means removing something.
Uses and Abuses of
Punishment
Punishment often produces an immediate change in
behavior, which ironically reinforces the punisher.

However, punishment rarely works in the long run for four reasons:

1. The power of punishment to suppress behavior usually disappears

when the threat of punishment is gone.

2. Punishment triggers escape or aggression

3. Punishment makes the learner apprehensive: inhibits learning.

4. Punishment is often applied unequally.

Making Punishment Work
To make punishment work:
◦ Punishment should be swift.
◦ Punishment should be certain-every time.
◦ Punishment should be limited in time and intensity.
◦ Punishment should clearly target the behavior, not the
person.
◦ Punishment should not give mixed messages.
◦ The most effective punishment is often omission training-
negative punishment.
Continuous Reinforcement

Continuous Reinforcement:
A schedule of reinforcement that
rewards every correct response given.
◦ Example: A vending machine.

What are other examples?

 Primary and Secondary
reinforcement
Primary reinforcement: something that is naturally reinforcing: food, warmth, water…
Secondary reinforcement:

something you have learned is a reward because it is paired

with a primary reinforcement in the long run: good grades.
3-Observational /Cognitive
Learning
A Third Type of Learning
Sometimes we have “flashes of insight” when dealing
with a problem where we have been experiencing trial
and error.

This type of learning is called cognitive learning, which

is explained as changes in mental processes, rather
than as changes in behavior alone.
Cognitive Learning

Cognitive learning is a powerful mechanism that provides the

means of knowledge, and goes well beyond simple imitation of
others.
Conditioning can never fully explain what you are learning
Cognitive learning is defined as the acquisition of knowledge
and skill by mental or cognitive processes — ;the procedures
we have for manipulating information 'in our heads’.
Cognitive processes include creating mental representations of
physical objects and events, and other forms of information
processing
Observational Learning
You can think of observational learning as an
extension of operant conditioning, in which we
observe someone else getting rewarded but act
as thought we had also received the reward.

Observational learning: Learning in which new responses

are acquired after other’s behavior and the
consequences of their behavior are observed.
Media and Violence

Does violence on TV/movies/video games have an impact

on the learning of children?
Correlation evidence from over 50 studies shows that
observing violence is associated with violent behavior.
In addition, experiment evidence shows that viewers of
media violence show a reduction in emotional arousal and
distress when they subsequently observe violent acts-a
condition known as psychic numbing.
Classroom Discipline
Reinforcing one particular behavior may actually be
reinforcing the opposite behavior.
Ignoring students who misbehave in class rather than
yelling at them (works most generally in the elementary
level).
Peer approval= more powerful than teacher approval
Cognitive Factors in Learning
Learning is purposeful & not mechanical.
Person can learn by thinking about something or watching others.
People search for information, weigh evidence, & then make decisions.

Exercise That Brain!!

Self-Control
People set up personal systems of rewards and
punishment to shape their own thoughts and
actions.
First step to develop some self control is to define
the problem.
Set up a behavioral contract.
What do all of these behaviors
have in common?
What kinds of behaviors are
they?
Negative Reinforcement
Punishment
Punishment
The most obvious form of aversive control.
An unpleasant consequence occurs & decreases the
frequency of the behavior that produced it.
Behavior that is punished decreases or is not repeated
—that is the goal of punishment.
Effective Punishment?
Disadvantages of Punishment
1. Aversive stimuli can produce unwanted side effects—
rage, aggression, fear.
2. Instead of one behavior to change, multiple behaviors
could emerge.
3. People learn to avoid the person delivering the aversive
consequences—children learn to stay away from
parents or teachers who often punish them.
4. Can just merely “suppress” the undesired behavior, not
totally eliminate it.
5. A child may not learn “correct” behaviors by
punishment alone—coaching/training is needed.
Self-Control
Personal systems of rewards and punishments—
helps shape one’s own thoughts and actions.
First step in self-control is to define the problem.
People who have a very poor opinion of
themselves would have to define the problem
more concretely.
Keep track of self-deprecating thoughts and
remarks you make—may lead to a start in changing
behavior.
Summary
1. Human behavior influenced by one’s history of rewards
and punishments.
2. Behavior can be reinforced according to continuous or
partial reinforcement schedules.
3. Punishments are stimuli that actually decrease the
likelihood of certain behaviors from repeating
themselves.