Introduction To Novels

INTRODUCTION TO
NOVELS
WHAT IS A NOVEL
• A novel is a lengthy work of fiction that explores human experiences

through a connected sequence of events and characters.
• Novels are usually written in prose and are characterized by their
complexity, depth, and development of themes, characters, and plots.
• They often provide a detailed exploration of the human condition and can
span a wide range of genres, including romance, mystery, science fiction,
fantasy, historical fiction, and more.
KEY ELEMENTS OF NOVELS
1. Plot: The sequence of events that make up the story. It typically includes:
• Exposition: Introduction of the setting, characters, and initial conflict.
• Rising Action: Events that build tension and develop the conflict.
• Climax: The turning point or most intense moment of the story.
• Falling Action: Events that unfold after the climax leading towards resolution.
• Resolution: The conclusion where conflicts are resolved and the story is brought
to a close.
2. Characters: The individuals who participate in the action of the novel. Types of
characters include:
• Protagonist: The main character around whom the story revolves.

• Antagonist: The character or force in opposition to the protagonist.
• Secondary Characters: Supporting characters who help develop the plot and themes.
2. Characters: The individuals who participate in the action of the novel. Types of
characters include:
• Who is this person?

• What makes them interesting?
• What does this person want?
• What does this person need?
3. Setting: The time and place in which the story occurs. The setting can be
real or fictional and can significantly influence the plot and characters.
Relationship with the world around them.
4. Theme: The central ideas or messages that the novel explores. Themes
can be universal concepts like love, power, conflict, or identity.
Common Themes
Love, betrayal, rebirth, redemption, family, prejudice, oppression, revenge,
corruption, survival, etc
Opposing Principle Themes
Good vs. Evil, Individual vs. Society, Life vs. Death, Fate vs. Free Will,
Tradition vs. Change, Pride vs. Humility, Morality vs. Fear etc
3. Setting: The time and place in which the story occurs. The setting can be
real or fictional and can significantly influence the plot and characters.
Relationship with the world around them.
4. Theme: The central ideas or messages that the novel explores. Themes
can be universal concepts like love, power, conflict, or identity.
KEY ELEMENT OF NOVELS
5. Point of View: The perspective from which the story is told. Common points of view
include:
• First Person: The narrator is a character in the story (uses “I”).

• Third Person Limited: The narrator tells the story from the perspective of one
character (uses “he” or “she”).
• Third Person Omniscient: The narrator knows the thoughts and feelings of all the
characters.
First Person Subjective

First person narratives are written from the character’s point of view (or the
PoV of multiple characters) as if they were speaking directly to the reader.
You’ll use statements like “I saw a shadow move from the corner of my
eye,” or, “and then he told me that it was over.” First person subjective PoV
takes the reader into the mind of the character and shows us everything
they’re thinking and feeling.
First Person Objective

First person objective is very similar because it’s also from the character’s
perspective and uses “I” and “me” statements. The difference is that the
objective PoV doesn’t show the character’s internal thoughts and feelings—
only their actions. This gives the reader an outside perspective and makes
them feel like they’re watching video footage of the story, deducing what’s
happening under the surface from the events of the plot.
Second Person
Second person PoV has a lot in common with first person, but instead of being
told from the main character’s perspective, it’s told from the reader’s—this
allows the reader to become the person telling the story. You may remember this
from “Choose Your Own Adventure” books. In second person narration, you’ll
use statements like “you turn a corner and find yourself staring at a door you’ve
never seen.” This is challenging to do well, but a fun creative exercise for any
writer.
Third Person Limited Subjective

Third person points of view are the most classic in literature; they use “he,”
“she,” or “they” to follow the characters’ journeys. In a limited subjective
point of view, you’ll allow the reader to experience the thoughts and feelings
of your protagonist—but no one else. This is a common narrative choice in
mystery novels.
Third Person Objective

Third person objective is pretty similar to first person objective, but it uses
the third person pronouns. The reader won’t experience anything the
characters are thinking or feeling except through their actions and the
choices that they make, leaving the true undercurrents of the story to the
reader’s imagination.
Third Person Multiple Subjective

This perspective works like third person limited subjective, in that it takes
the reader into the minds of the characters using the pronouns “he,” “she,” or
“they.” The difference is that the reader gets to see into more than one
character—but only one at any given moment. This might involve chapters
that alternate between one character and another, or a story that shows two
different timelines with protagonists for each one.
Third Person Omniscient

This perspective is very similar to third person multiple subjective, but
it allows the reader to see into more than one character’s thoughts in
the same moment. The third person omniscient creates a “mental
dollhouse” effect in which the internal workings of everyone on stage
is exposed to the reader.
6. Conflict: The struggle between opposing forces that drives the plot.
In a story, the protagonist should always have something to fight for. How
the protagonist reacts to these conflicts shows a lot about who they are as a
person. As the story progresses and the character grows, the way they
handle these conflicts will probably change—they’ll start taking an active
role in moving the story along, rather than a passive one.
6. Conflict: The struggle between opposing forces that drives the plot.
Types of conflict include:
• Man vs. Man: Conflict between characters.

• Man vs. Self: Internal conflict within a character.
• Man vs. Nature: Conflict between a character and the natural world.
• Man vs. Society: Conflict between a character and societal norms or rules.
Types of conflict
1) Man vs. Man

Above, we looked at how antagonists can be central characters in a good
narrative. This type of conflict sets a person against another person, usually
the classic bad guys of literature, and watches their opposing needs play out.
These will usually be the main characters of the literary work.
Types of conflict
2) Man vs. Self

Sometimes, a protagonist’s obstacle comes from within. This might be
something like addiction, alcoholism, fear, or other forms of self-sabotage.
This type of conflict shows the main character fighting and ultimately
overcoming their central weakness.
3) Man vs. Society

This type of conflict sets an individual protagonist against the larger world.
Stories that deal in difficult themes like racism, homophobia, misogyny, or
class divides often focus on this conflict.
4) Man vs. Nature
A beloved mainstay of hollywood blockbusters, this type of conflict sets the
protagonist against an impersonal force of the natural world—an animal, a
natural disaster, or illness.
7. Style and Tone: The author’s use of language and the overall feeling or
mood conveyed in the novel. Style can be formal or informal, and tone can
range from serious to humorous.
LITERARY ANALYSIS
• Literary analysis - the examination and evaluation of a literary work.

• When people analyze literature, they consider how the author used literary
techniques to create meaning. Readers first critically read the text and
examine elements like figurative language and structure.
• When looking at these elements, readers consider how the author used
them to create meaning. They then make analytical claims about the text
they can support by discussing specific evidence from the work.
INTERPRETING LITERATURE
• To interpret literature, readers should consider elements like the following:
Literary Definition Sample Analytical Questions

Elements
People in the story How do the characters change

throughout the story?
Characters Do the characters represent universal
ideas or qualities?
Conversation that characters How does the dialogue impact the

Dialogue have in the story reader's understanding of the
characters?
How does the dialogue shape the plot?

Elements
The use of words beyond their How does figurative language impact
Figurative literal definitions. Types the meaning of the text?
Language include simile, metaphor, and How are types of figurative language
personification. related to other literary elements?
Event of the story What is the main conflict?

Plot How does the author build feelings like
suspense and confusion through the
plot?

Elements
The perspective the story is Is the story told from the first, second,
told from or third point of view? How does that
Point of view influence the reader's understanding of
the story's events?
The universal idea the author What themes does the author explore in
Theme explores in the story this text?
Why are these themes important?
How does the author use literary
elements to explore the theme?

Elements
The attitude the author Does the tone change throughout the
expresses through writing text?
Tone How does the tone impact the message
of the story?
Where the story takes place How does the setting relate to other
Setting elements like theme?
Does the setting impact the characters'
feelings, actions, or conflicts?
WRITING A LITERARY ANALYSIS ESSAY
1. Read and Understand the Prompt

First, writers should read the prompt several times and ask themselves the
following questions:
• What is this prompt asking writers to write about?
• Does the prompt specify any literary elements that should be considered?
• Does the prompt articulate more than one task for writers?
• Is this prompt asking about the text as a whole or a specific part of the text?

What struck you?
Did a particular image, line, or scene linger in your mind for a long time? If it fascinated
you, chances are you can draw on it to write a fascinating essay.
What confused you?
Maybe you were surprised to see a character act in a certain way, or maybe you didn’t
understand why the book ended the way it did.
Ask yourself why the author chose to write about that character or scene the way he or she
did and you might tap into some important insights about the work as a whole.
Did you notice any contradictions or ironies?

Great works of literature are complex; great literary essays recognize and
explain those complexities. Maybe the main character acts one way around
his family and a completely different way around his friends and associates.
If you can find a way to explain a work’s contradictory elements, you’ve got
the seeds of a great essay.
At this point, you don’t need to know exactly what you’re going to say about your
topic; you just need a place to begin your exploration.
You can help direct your reading and brainstorming by formulating your topic as a
question, which you’ll then try to answer in your essay. The best questions invite
critical debates and discussions, not just a rehashing of the summary. Remember,
you’re looking for something you can prove or argue based on evidence you find
in the text.
2. Critically Read the Text
Once writers understand the task they must complete for the literary analysis
essay, they should carefully read the text they must write about.
If the prompt is on an exam, they might have to consult a short passage of
text. If the prompt is for an English class, they might have to turn to a book
they have already read and review relevant parts.
3. Craft a Thesis Statement
Next, writers should construct a thesis statement that addresses all aspects of
the prompt.
A thesis statement is a defensible claim about the topic that can be supported
with evidence. When writing a literary analysis essay, the thesis statement
should be about the author's use of literary techniques in the text.
3. Craft a Thesis Statement

• A strong thesis stands alone as a summary of the whole argument. Readers
should be able to read the thesis statement by itself and understand the
main point of the essay.
• An effective thesis statement mentions the title and author of the text, the
literary elements they will analyze in the essay, and a claim about the
impact of those literary elements on the author's message.
4. Develop and Organize Arguments
There’s no single method of argumentation that will work in every context.

One essay prompt might ask you to compare and contrast two characters,
while another asks you to trace an image through a given work of literature.
These questions require different kinds of answers and therefore different
kinds of arguments. We’ll discuss three common kinds of essay prompts and
some strategies for constructing a solid, well-argued case.
5. Write the introduction
Your introduction sets up the entire essay. It’s where you present your topic
and articulate the particular issues and questions you’ll be addressing.
It’s also where you, as the writer, introduce yourself to your readers.
A persuasive literary essay immediately establishes its writer as a
knowledgeable, authoritative figure.
An introduction can vary in length depending on the overall length of the essay, but in
a traditional five-paragraph essay it should be no longer than one paragraph.
However long it is, your introduction needs to:
Provide any necessary context.
Your introduction should situate the reader and let him or her know what to expect.
What book are you discussing? Which characters? What topic will you be addressing?
Present your thesis.
This usually happens at or very near the end of your introduction.
Answer the “So what?” question.
Why is this topic important, and why is your particular position on the topic
noteworthy? Ideally, your introduction should pique the reader’s interest by
suggesting how your argument is surprising or otherwise counterintuitive.
Literary essays make unexpected connections and reveal less-than-obvious
truths.
Indicate the shape of the essay to come.
Your reader should finish reading your introduction with a good sense of the
scope of your essay as well as the path you’ll take toward proving your
thesis. You don’t need to spell out every step, but you do need to suggest the
organizational pattern you’ll be using.
Your introduction should not :

Be vague.
Beware of the two killer words in literary analysis: interesting and important.
Of course the work, question, or example is interesting and important—that’s why
you’re writing about it!
Open with any grandiose assertions.
Many student readers think that beginning their essays with a flamboyant
statement such as, “Since the dawn of time, writers have been fascinated with the
topic of free will,” makes them sound important and commanding.

Wildly praise the work.
Another typical mistake student writers make is extolling the work or author.
Your teacher doesn’t need to be told that “Shakespeare is perhaps the
greatest writer in the English language.” You can mention a work’s
reputation in passing—by referring to The Adventures of Huckleberry
Finn as “Mark Twain’s enduring classic,” for example—but don’t make a
point of bringing it up unless that reputation is key to your argument.
Go off-topic.
Keep your introduction streamlined and to the point.
Don’t feel the need to throw in all kinds of bells and whistles in order to
impress your reader—just get to the point as quickly as you can, without
skimping on any of the required steps.
6. Write the body paragraphs
Once you’ve written your introduction, you’ll take the arguments you
developed in step 4 and turn them into your body paragraphs.
The organization of this middle section of your essay will largely be
determined by the argumentative strategy you use, but no matter how you
arrange your thoughts, your body paragraphs need to do the following:
Begin with a strong topic sentence.
Topic sentences are like signs on a highway: they tell the reader where they
are and where they’re going. A good topic sentence not only alerts readers to
what issue will be discussed in the following paragraph but also gives them
a sense of what argument will be made about that issue.
“Rumor and gossip play an important role in The Crucible ” isn’t a strong
topic sentence because it doesn’t tell us very much.
Vs.
“The community’s constant gossiping creates an environment that allows
false accusations to flourish” is a much stronger topic sentence—
it not only tells us what the paragraph will discuss (gossip) but how the
paragraph will discuss the topic (by showing how gossip creates a set of
conditions that leads to the play’s climactic action).
Fully and completely develop a single thought.
Don’t skip around in your paragraph or try to stuff in too much material.
Body paragraphs are like bricks: each individual one needs to be strong and
sturdy or the entire structure will collapse.
Make sure you have really proven your point before moving on to the next
point.
Use transitions effectively.
Good literary essay writers know that each paragraph must be clearly and
strongly linked to the material around it. Think of each paragraph as a
response to the one that precedes it.
Use transition words and phrases such as however, similarly, on the contrary,
therefore, and furthermore to indicate what kind of response you’re making.
Use transitions effectively.
Good literary essay writers know that each paragraph must be clearly and
strongly linked to the material around it. Think of each paragraph as a
response to the one that precedes it.
Use transition words and phrases such as however, similarly, on the contrary,
therefore, and furthermore to indicate what kind of response you’re making.
7. Write the Conclusion

Just as you used the introduction to ground your readers in the topic before
providing your thesis, you’ll use the conclusion to quickly summarize the
specifics learned thus far and then hint at the broader implications of your
topic. A good conclusion will:
- Do more than simply restate the thesis.
- Synthesize the arguments, not summarize them.
(Don’t repeat the details of your body paragraphs in your conclusion)
A good conclusion will:
- Revisit the “So what?” question.

In your introduction, you made a case for why your topic and position are
important. You should close your essay with the same sort of gesture. What
do your readers know now that they didn’t know before? How will that
knowledge help them better appreciate or understand the work overall?
- Move from the specific to the general.

Your essay has most likely treated a very specific element of the work—a
single character, a small set of images, or a particular passage.
In your conclusion, try to show how this narrow discussion has wider
implications for the work overall.
- Stay relevant.
Your conclusion should suggest new directions of thought, but it shouldn’t
be treated as an opportunity to pad your essay with all the extra, interesting
ideas you came up with during your brainstorming sessions but couldn’t fit
into the essay proper. Don’t attempt to stuff in unrelated queries or too many
abstract thoughts.
- Avoid making overblown closing statements.

A conclusion should open up your highly specific, focused discussion, but it
should do so without drawing a sweeping lesson about life or human nature.
Making such observations may be part of the point of reading, but it’s almost
always a mistake in essays, where these observations tend to sound overly
dramatic or simply silly.
When writing the essay…
If you are writing a literary analysis essay for a timed exam, you likely won't
have time to create a detailed outline. Instead, once you have your thesis,
quickly identify three supporting points. Jot them down on scratch paper,
followed by page numbers or some keywords from relevant evidence.
This will give you a loose idea of the flow of the essay without wasting too
much time.
LITERARY ANALYSIS – KEY TAKEAWAYS
• Literary analysis is the examination and evaluation of a literary work.

• When analyzing literature, readers should note how different literary elements create
meaning.
• Writers should consider elements like theme, structure, tone, and figurative language
when analyzing literature.
• When writing a literary analysis essay, writers should read the prompt, critically read the
text, craft a thesis, draft an outline, and then write the essay.
• Readers should extract meaning from short but significant pieces of evidence when
analyzing literature.
AUTHOR’S INTENT
• When reading or analyzing a text, it can be useful to reflect on the

authorial intent. Authorial intent is the intention behind the text. In other
words, it is the meaning the author wants the reader to get out of the
work. Reflecting on authorial intent can help readers interpret a text.
• Author’s intent is the way an author desires readers to understand their

work.
AUTHOR’S INTENT
• Intended Audience
• Recognizing an author’s intended audience is a useful first step in analyzing an
author’s intent. The intended audience of a text is the primary group of readers that
will read it. For example, consider J.K Rowling’s book Harry Potter and the
Sorcerer’s Stone (1997). The book is about an eleven-year-old boy who finds out he
is a wizard and goes on a year of adventure at a school for magic. Although people
of all ages and backgrounds read this text, the content and the simplicity of the
writing suggest that Rowling aimed the text at a youthful audience. Knowing this
allows readers to narrow down what Rowling’s intent could have been, such as
entertaining young people and teaching them moral lessons.
AUTHOR’S INTENT
• To identify the intended audience of a text, readers can ask themselves the
following questions:
Where was this text published? Who typically reads publications from this place?
Who tends to be interested in this topic?
Does the author use words that only experts would know? Or is this text
accessible to all levels of readers?
• Reflecting on the answers to these questions can help readers pinpoint who the
author is directing a text toward.
AUTHOR’S INTENT
• Tone
An author’s tone can also be a key to understanding their intent. In writing, the
tone is the mood or attitude that a writer's words convey. For example, writers
can use a serious tone or a joyful tone. An author’s word choice, sentence
structure, and subject matter all contribute to tone.
Noting the tone of writing can help readers understand what a writer wants a
reader to get out of a text. For instance, if a writer uses a solemn tone when
writing about a recent event, this suggests that they want the reader to take it
seriously.
AUTHOR’S INTENT
• Fallacy of Authorial Intent

• There is a lot of debate in literary criticism about the relevance of authorial
intent. In 1946, literary critics William Kurtz Wimsatt and Monroe Curtis
Beardsley wrote an article called “The Intentional Fallacy” claiming that it
is a mistake to try to understand an author’s intention when analyzing a
text. This idea prompted a lot of debate among literary critics.
• In the essay, Wimsatt and Beardsley outline three types of evidence that
readers use to find meaning in a text.
AUTHOR’S INTENT
• Fallacy of Authorial Intent 1) Internal Evidence

• Internal evidence comes from within the text itself. It consists of elements of
language in the poem, such as syntax, tone, and structure. For example, a reader
might point to a writer's use of sarcasm to claim that the writer is mocking the topic.
• Wismatt and Beardsley explained that internal evidence is public, meaning that
anyone reading a text can access it. They argued that using only internal evidence in
analysis ensures that readers avoid the intentional fallacy. This is because internal
evidence is concerned only with meaning in the text itself, not with readers'
speculations about what the author may have intended based on outside context.
AUTHOR’S INTENT
• Fallacy of Authorial Intent 2) External Evidence

• In contrast to internal evidence, external evidence comes from outside the text. It
consists of contextual elements, such as where the author wrote the text and what was
going on during that time. The main point of using external evidence is to determine
what the author intended to do in a text.
• Wistmatt and Beardsley explain that using external evidence in analysis is a problem.
• It is easy for readers to incorrectly apply external evidence to the meaning of a work.
Imagine a reader knows that a poet wrote a poem at the time of their mother’s death. The
reader might assume that some words in the poem represent this sad time for the poet
when it may not be the case. Wismatt and Beadsely also warned against the use of
external evidence because it is private and relies on what each individual reader knows.
AUTHOR’S INTENT
• Fallacy of Authorial Intent 3) Intermediate Evidence

• Intermediate evidence is a bit internal and a bit external. For example, a
reader might claim that a poet uses a flower as a symbol for fertility in a
poem. They might claim this because the poet used it like that in other poems
and because it functions that way in the text itself. The use of other poems as
evidence is external evidence; the mention of how the symbol functions in
the poem is internal evidence.
• Wismatt and Beardsley supported the use of intermediate evidence more than
external evidence because it still relies on the text itself, but they remained
wary of the elements of external evidence within it.1
DEATH OF THE AUTHOR
• Then in 1967, Roland Barthes wrote the essay "The Death of the Author." He posited that
the intentions of an author should not be a part of literary analysis. He suggested that
readers have to figuratively kill the author when reading a text and only focus on what it
means to them. According to Barthes, if a reader can use evidence to support an
interpretation of a text, that interpretation can be valid.
• Barthes’ perspective has become increasingly popular in literary criticism. It is difficult to
pinpoint what an author's intentions were, especially in an old text. Writing off a reader’s
interpretation of a text because the author did not deliberately think of it also restricts
readers' critical thinking. As long as a writer can support their interpretation with
evidence from the text, their ideas have the potential to expand literary insights.
DEATH OF THE AUTHOR
1. Separation of Author and Text
Core Idea: The meaning and interpretation of a text should not be

constrained by the author's intentions, biography, or personal context. Once
a text is created, it becomes independent of its creator.
Example: When reading a novel, the reader should not concern themselves
with the author's personal beliefs, historical context, or intended message.
DEATH OF THE AUTHOR
2. Empowerment of the Reader

Core Idea: The reader plays a crucial role in creating meaning. Each reader
brings their own experiences, interpretations, and insights to the text,
making the act of reading a collaborative process between the text and the
reader.
Example: Different readers may derive different meanings from the same
poem based on their unique perspectives.
DEATH OF THE AUTHOR
3. Textual Autonomy
Core Idea: The text itself is a self-sufficient entity with its own structure,
language, and inherent meanings that are open to multiple interpretations.
Example: A literary work can be analyzed based on its language, themes,
symbols, and narrative techniques without reference to the author's life.
DEATH OF THE AUTHOR
4. Critique of Authorial Authority

Core Idea: Barthes critiques the traditional view that the author is the
ultimate authority over the meaning of their work. He argues that privileging
the author's voice limits the potential richness and diversity of
interpretations.
Example: Analyzing Shakespeare’s plays should focus on the text itself
rather than attempting to uncover Shakespeare’s personal intentions or
historical background.
DEATH OF THE AUTHOR
Implication 1) Multiplicity of Meanings

Implication: Texts can be interpreted in countless ways, and each
interpretation is valid. There is no single, definitive meaning dictated by the
author.
Example: A novel like "Moby-Dick" can be read as a critique of obsession, a
commentary on human struggle against nature, or a religious allegory,
among other interpretations.
DEATH OF THE AUTHOR
Implication 2) Focus on Language and Structure
Implication: Literary analysis should focus on the language, structure, and

internal coherence of the text. This shift encourages close reading and
textual analysis.
Example: Analyzing the use of symbolism and themes in "The Great
Gatsby" without reference to F. Scott Fitzgerald's life.
DEATH OF THE AUTHOR
Implication 3) Intertextuality
Implication: Texts are seen as part of a larger web of cultural and literary
discourse. They interact with other texts and cultural artifacts, contributing
to a broader conversation.
Example: T.S. Eliot’s "The Waste Land" is filled with references to other
literary works, which adds layers of meaning through intertextual
connections.
DEATH OF THE AUTHOR
Implication 4) Reader’s Role
Implication: Readers become active participants in creating meaning. Their

interpretations, informed by their own experiences and insights, are integral
to the text's life.
Example: Different readers might interpret Sylvia Plath's "The Bell Jar" in
ways that resonate with their personal experiences of mental health and
societal pressures.
DEATH OF THE AUTHOR
Implication 4) Reader’s Role
Implication: Readers become active participants in creating meaning. Their

interpretations, informed by their own experiences and insights, are integral
to the text's life.
Example: Different readers might interpret Sylvia Plath's "The Bell Jar" in
ways that resonate with their personal experiences of mental health and
societal pressures.
DEATH OF THE AUTHOR
Criticism: Some argue that completely disregarding the author’s intentions

and context can lead to misinterpretations or a lack of understanding of the
text’s historical and cultural significance.
Counterargument: Supporters of Barthes’ theory argue that while historical

and biographical contexts can enrich understanding, they should not be the
sole determinants of a text’s meaning.
DEATH OF THE AUTHOR
Criticism: Others believe that this theory diminishes the role and creativity
of the author.
Counterargument: Barthes’ theory suggests that the author’s creativity is

fully realized when the text is open to multiple interpretations, thus
extending the life and impact of the work beyond its original creation.
DEATH OF THE AUTHOR
Conclusion :
"Death of the Author" is a revolutionary concept in literary theory that shifts
the focus from the author’s intentions to the text itself and the reader’s
interpretation. By embracing the idea that the meaning of a text is not fixed
by the author but rather is fluid and open to various interpretations, this
theory democratizes literary analysis and enriches the reading experience. It
encourages readers to engage deeply with the text and to consider a wide
range of perspectives and meanings.
AUTHORIAL INTENT VS. READER RESPONSE
• The debate regarding the importance of authorial intent centers around two
concepts: authorial intent and reader response. In contrast to authorial
intent, reader response refers to the way a reader interprets the work based
on their experience with it, regardless of what the author intended the work
to be about.
AUTHORIAL INTENT VS. READER RESPONSE
• For instance, for many years, scholars have taught that Shakespeare intended
his tragic play Macbeth (1606) to be a warning about the dangers of ambition.
But imagine a reader reads the play and thinks that it is a testament to the
power and the importance of going after one wants, no matter what the
obstacles or the cost. They could use evidence from the play to support this
claim, such as the way Macbeth goes as far as murder to achieve his goals.
Some might say that this is not the meaning that Shakespeare intended.
However, critics of authorial intent would say that the reader's interpretation is
just as valid because they used evidence from the text to back it up.
PROBLEMS WITH AUTHORIAL INTENT
• There are several problems with authorial intent, including the following:
It restricts possible interpretations of a text.
It suggests that authors have the power to limit the meaning of a text.
It reduces the possibilities for new analyses.
It is difficult to identify.
• Despite these problems, understanding authorial intent can sometimes be
useful when interpreting a text. Recognizing authorial intent when
studying a text in an English class is also sometimes a necessity.
AUTHORIAL INTENT– KEY TAKEAWAYS
• Authorial intent is what an author intends a reader to get out of a text.

• Readers can analyze authorial intent by analyzing an author’s tone, point of view,
and intended audience.
• The importance of authorial intent is controversial, and scholars like Roland
Barthes argue that readers should only focus on supporting their own
interpretations.
• Authorial intent has several problems, like how it restricts interpretations and is
difficult to assess.
• Regardless of the debate, authorial intent can be useful for understanding a text
and is sometimes a necessity when studying a text.
WHAT MATTERS MORE?
AUTHOR’S INTENT VS. READER’S
INTERPRETATION
Class discussion
THE METAMORPHOSIS
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KWeL_QqK1NA
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AWv4Ss8G9is
THE METAMORPHOSIS
• Plot Summary
• The Metamorphosis tells the story of Gregor Samsa, a traveling salesman

who wakes up one morning to find himself transformed into a giant insect.
The novella explores his struggles to adapt to his new physical form, the
impact on his family, and the broader implications of his transformation.
THE METAMORPHOSIS
• Major Plot Points:

• Transformation: Gregor wakes up to discover he has turned into a giant
insect.
• Initial Reactions: Gregor and his family react with shock and horror. Gregor
is unable to communicate and is confined to his room.
• Family Dynamics: Gregor's family, initially sympathetic, becomes
increasingly resentful and burdened by his condition. His father becomes
hostile, his sister initially cares for him but later grows indifferent, and his
mother is torn between love and repulsion.
THE METAMORPHOSIS
• Major Plot Points

• Isolation and Decline: Gregor's physical and emotional state deteriorates.
His family becomes more neglectful and ashamed of him.
• Climax and Resolution: Gregor dies alone in his room. The family,
relieved, decides to move on with their lives, signaling a new beginning
for them.
THE METAMORPHOSIS
• Characters
1. Gregor Samsa: The protagonist who transforms into an insect. His struggle reflects themes of
alienation and identity.
2. Grete Samsa: Gregor’s sister. Initially caring, she becomes increasingly detached and ultimately
advocates for getting rid of Gregor.
3. Mr. Samsa: Gregor’s father. He becomes aggressive and hostile toward Gregor after the
transformation.
4. Mrs. Samsa: Gregor’s mother. She is conflicted, showing both love and horror towards Gregor.
5. The Chief Clerk: Gregor’s boss, who visits the Samsa household to check on Gregor’s absence
from work, representing the oppressive nature of Gregor's job.
THE METAMORPHOSIS
• Themes
Alienation and Isolation: Gregor’s transformation into an insect symbolizes

his existing alienation from society, his family, and his own humanity.
Identity and Selfhood: The novella explores Gregor’s loss of identity and
self-worth following his transformation.
Family and Duty: It examines the dynamics of familial responsibility, love,
and resentment.
THE METAMORPHOSIS
• Themes
Existentialism: The story delves into existential themes, questioning the

meaning and purpose of life.
Absurdity and Surrealism: The bizarre and surreal nature of Gregor’s
transformation highlights the absurdity of human existence.
THE METAMORPHOSIS
• Symbolism
1.The Insect: Gregor’s transformation into an insect represents his
dehumanization and loss of identity.
2.The Room: Gregor’s confinement in his room symbolizes his isolation
and separation from the world. How does it reflect his mental state and his
relationship with his family?
THE METAMORPHOSIS
• Literary Devices
1. Imagery: Vivid descriptions of Gregor’s insect form and the setting create a strong visual
impact.
2. Symbolism: Objects and actions in the novella carry deeper meanings related to the
themes.
3. Irony: The tragic irony of Gregor’s situation highlights the absurdity of his condition and
his family’s response.
4. Third-Person Limited Narration: Provides insight into Gregor’s thoughts and feelings,
emphasizing his isolation.
THE METAMORPHOSIS
• Discussion Questions
1. Transformation as Metaphor: What does Gregor’s transformation into an
insect symbolize in terms of his identity and relationship with his family?
2. Family Dynamics: How does Gregor’s transformation affect the dynamics
within his family? How do the characters’ reactions evolve throughout the
novella?
3. Themes of Alienation: How does Kafka explore the theme of alienation in The
Metamorphosis? How does Gregor’s physical transformation amplify his
emotional and social isolation?
THE METAMORPHOSIS
Class activity
1.Write a diary entry from Gregor’s perspective, exploring thoughts

and feelings about his transformation
2. Talk about whether Gregor’s family should be sympathized with or
condemned for their actions
PARAGRAPHS
WHAT IS A PARAGRAPH
• A paragraph is much more than a collection of connected sentences. It is a

building block of essay development, and paragraphs provide the structure
needed to develop the thesis of a paper.
• In fact, a useful way to think about a paragraph is as a “mini-essay,” or an
essay within an essay, with its own mini-thesis (the topic sentence), middle
or body (the supporting details) and end or conclusion (the concluding
sentence).
WHAT IS A PARAGRAPH
• To understand how paragraphs help to develop a thesis, think of them as

landmarks on a map. With each paragraph, you describe where you are standing
and point the direction for your readers to make sure they complete the journey to
your conclusion. A vague signpost or a detour down a side trail could well have
your readers lost and wondering where you are taking them.
• Clear signals, on the other hand, in the form of clearly worded topic sentences,
relevant support, reasonable interpretations of material, and logical conclusions
will help your readers follow the development of your ideas.
TYPES OF PARAGRAPHS
• In an essay, there are four types of paragraphs—introductory, body,

transitional and concluding—and each serves a slightly different function in
the paper. In the simplest terms, introductory paragraphs introduce your thesis,
body paragraphs develop it, transitional paragraphs move your readers from
one aspect of it to another, and concluding paragraphs sum up the
development of the thesis and restate it.
• Thus, while all four types support the thesis, they support it in different ways.
TYPES OF PARAGRAPHS
• Introductory paragraphs
• An introductory paragraph supports the thesis in three ways.
• First, it engages readers’ interest with a strong opening sentence. Some
writing texts advise using a quotation or an anecdote to capture readers’
attention, and this can work well. Whatever kind of opening you use,
however, it should be relevant to your subject and move your readers
quickly and smoothly toward your thesis.
TYPES OF PARAGRAPHS
• An introductory paragraph also supports the thesis by giving relevant background
information and context, such as important facts or theory.
• For example, if you were writing an introduction to a paper about Napoleon’s loss at
Waterloo, before presenting your thesis statement, you might offer a sentence or two
about the ongoing hostilities that led up to the final battle.
• This sketch of important background should be accomplished quickly with just
enough information to help your readers understand why your subject and thesis are
important
TYPES OF PARAGRAPHS
• The third, and perhaps most important function of an introductory
paragraph, is to introduce the thesis statement and thereby focus your
readers on the central idea of your paper.
• A thesis statement is the central idea, opinion, assertion, claim or attitude
of the paper. At the core of a thesis statement is the writer’s controlling
idea on the topic.
EXAMPLE OF AN INTRODUCTORY PARAGRAPH
• Analytical Essay on Climate Change

• Climate change is arguably the most pressing issue facing humanity today. Over
the past century, industrial activities have led to unprecedented levels of
greenhouse gas emissions, resulting in global temperature rises, melting ice caps,
and increasingly severe weather events. This environmental crisis not only
threatens natural ecosystems but also poses significant risks to human health, food
security, and economic stability. Despite the overwhelming scientific consensus on
the reality and severity of climate change, political and public responses have been
slow and insufficient. This essay will examine the causes of climate change, its
far-reaching impacts, and the urgent need for comprehensive and coordinated
action to mitigate its effects.
• Hook: "Climate change is arguably the most pressing issue facing humanity
today." This opening sentence grabs the reader's attention by emphasizing the
urgency and importance of the topic.
• Background Information: "Over the past century, industrial activities have led
to unprecedented levels of greenhouse gas emissions, resulting in global
temperature rises, melting ice caps, and increasingly severe weather events." This
provides necessary context by summarizing the causes and consequences of
climate change.
• Thesis Statement: "This essay will examine the causes of climate change, its far-
reaching impacts, and the urgent need for comprehensive and coordinated action
to mitigate its effects." This clearly outlines the main points that will be addressed
in the essay, setting up a roadmap for the reader.
• Example 2: Persuasive Essay on the Importance of Education
• Education is the cornerstone of personal and societal development, shaping the
future of individuals and nations alike. From early childhood education to advanced
degrees, the acquisition of knowledge and skills is essential for economic growth,
social mobility, and personal fulfillment. However, access to quality education
remains unevenly distributed, with significant disparities based on socioeconomic
status, geographic location, and gender. To address these inequities and ensure that
everyone has the opportunity to reach their full potential, it is imperative to invest in
educational reforms that prioritize accessibility, inclusivity, and innovation. This
essay will argue that improving education is not only a moral obligation but also a
strategic imperative for creating a more equitable and prosperous society.
• Hook: "Education is the cornerstone of personal and societal development, shaping the
future of individuals and nations alike." This opening statement emphasizes the fundamental
importance of education.
• Background Information: "From early childhood education to advanced degrees, the
acquisition of knowledge and skills is essential for economic growth, social mobility, and
personal fulfillment. However, access to quality education remains unevenly distributed,
with significant disparities based on socioeconomic status, geographic location, and gender."
This provides context by highlighting both the importance of education and the existing
challenges.
• Thesis Statement: "This essay will argue that improving education is not only a moral
obligation but also a strategic imperative for creating a more equitable and prosperous
society." This clearly states the essay's main argument and sets up the points to be discussed.
BODY PARAGRAPH
• Once you have engaged your readers and presented your thesis in your
introduction, use your body paragraphs to fully develop your ideas. You can do
this by first introducing a sub-topic of the thesis in a topic sentence.
• For example, if you were expanding a theme about Napoleon’s loss at Waterloo,
you might have a topic sentence that reads like this: “Napoleon brought on one of
the first financial crises of the French government by emptying government
coffers for his war with Britain.” Notice that the topic sentence doesn’t provide
details, just the general topic of the paragraph.
BODY PARAGRAPHS
• Notice also that the topic sentence tells readers how the paragraph’s
topic/main idea relates to the essay’s core thesis. In other words, a topic
sentence not only gives a fact but makes a point or gives an interpretation
about that fact, showing how it is relevant or significant to the essay’s core
purpose. It is important to remember, too, that the topic sentence is your
idea, based on the interpretation of your sources.
BODY PARAGRAPHS
• With your topic sentence in place, you can now develop your idea with sentences that
provide supporting details. In the above example, these details might be facts about the
repercussions of Napoleon’s financial crisis or about opposition that he faced as a
result. In a history paper, these details would most likely take the form of quotations or
paraphrases from sources, but depending on your writing purpose, audience, and
discipline, supporting details might also be facts, personal anecdotes, or logical
reasoning.
• Whatever form of evidence you use, make sure it is convincing to your audience within
the context of your writing purpose and that it supports the statement you make in your
topic sentence.
BODY PARAGRAPHS
• In well-developed body paragraphs, you not only have to provide evidence to

support the topic sentence, you also have to interpret it for your readers.
• For example, if you were developing the paragraph about Napoleon’s financial
mismanagement, it would not be enough to provide quotes or paraphrases with the
facts. You would have to show readers how those details supported the idea that
Napoleon’s financial mismanagement was connected to his final defeat at Waterloo.
• In other words, as a writer, you are obliged to interpret sources, facts or reasoning
and connect the interpretation to the thesis statement with transition signals.
BODY PARAGRAPHS
• Just as all essays have conclusions that review and sum up the ideas in a
paper, a paragraph has a concluding sentence that sums up the point of the
paragraph and ties it clearly to the thesis.
• Thus, a concluding sentence for our hypothetical paragraph about Napoleon’s
financial woes might read: “In this way, the hostility that Napoleon
engendered in the French banking community began a series of events that
would end in his defeat at Waterloo.” A good concluding sentence sums up
the main point of the paragraph and provides readers with the “so what?”—
the reason that the point is important to the conclusion of the paper.
TRANSITIONAL PARAGRAPHS
• There may be times when you want to shift from one sub-topic of your
thesis to another or from a general discussion to a more detailed treatment
of an idea. At these times, you can use a transitional paragraph to sum up
and hint at the material to come.
• In other words, transitional paragraphs act as signposts that guide readers
to the next part of your essay. Because transitional paragraphs serve such a
specific function, you will not find many of them in an essay, and in a
shorter piece, there may not be any.
CONCLUDING PARAGRAPHS
• Some students think that the purpose of a conclusion is to restate the thesis
and this is partly true. The conclusion should reassert the core idea of your
paper, but it should also clearly flow from the material you have carefully
developed in your body paragraphs and thus, it should be more than a
mechanical restatement of your thesis.
• Rather, an effective concluding paragraph should reinforce the central idea of
your paper and leave your readers satisfied that you have made your case.
CONCLUDING PARAGRAPHS
• One way to ensure that you have written an effective conclusion is to ask,
“Does it strengthen the main message of my paper?” If it draws conclusions
from the points you have made in your paper or suggests the implications of
them, chances are your conclusion is fully developed. For example, in our
essay on Napoleon, a writer might summarize the financial and military
reasons for his defeat at Waterloo, restate the thesis that Napoleon’s defeat was
the result of errors in financial and military judgment, and then suggest that his
defeat decided the fate of modern Europe. This sums up the material from the
body and suggests the larger importance of the thesis to the reader.
WRITING EFFECTIVE PARAGRAPHS
• In general, in order for a paragraph to be effective, it must have

three characteristics: unity, development and coherence.
UNITY
The first characteristic of an effective paragraph is unity, which means that

all sentences in the paragraph explain, develop, and support a central idea in
some way. In other words, every paragraph must have a purpose within your
paper, and all the sentences must somehow advance that purpose.
This means that ALL sentences—topic sentence, supporting ones, and
concluding sentence—must be more than loosely related to the sub-topic.
They must all advance the paragraph’s purpose as well as the thesis.
• Why should you aim for a unified paragraph? Because in a dis-unified one, a writer’s purpose
and the connections between the sentences can be unclear, as in this one:
• (1)Firstly, the Olympic Games provide an outlet for competition. (2) Friendly competition
among many countries occurs around the world. (3) Regardless of each country’s financial
situation, the competition is in the field of sports and not in politics. (4)It provides to people
who have trained very hard a form or basis of comparison to others around the world, giving
these competitors the opportunity to find out if they are the very best. (5)Also, along with
providing an outlet for competition the Olympic Games creates a sense of nationalism. (6)
Nationalist pride is always a component of the Olympics, each country having its
representatives. (6) The Olympics unifies a country, giving its citizens something in
common-- a victory-- that brings them together. (7) For example, the acquisition of a gold
medal or a number of gold medals can be a source of national pride.
UNITY
• To achieve unity, begin with a clear topic sentence. This doesn’t mean that
it has to appear at the beginning of the paragraph, although a topic
sentence usually does in academic writing. What is important however, is
that the main idea or purpose, stated in the topic sentence, sets the agenda
for the rest of the paragraph. Because the topic sentence provides the
unifying idea, this sentence must be clear, concise and make a point about
your thesis
UNITY
• You can think of it this way: a good topic sentence provides the bones of a
paragraph that support the skin and muscle of all the sentences that follow.
Once you know what point you want to introduce in your topic sentence,
you can create a unified paragraph by making sure that all the rest of the
sentences are clearly related to the first one.
• Thus, unity is created when the topic sentence makes a promise to readers,
and all the other sentences fulfill that promise.
"Regular physical exercise is essential for maintaining overall health. Engaging in
physical activities such as running, swimming, or cycling can significantly improve
cardiovascular health by strengthening the heart and increasing blood circulation.
Exercise also helps to regulate weight by burning calories and boosting
metabolism. According to a study published in the American Journal of Preventive
Medicine, individuals who exercise regularly are less likely to develop chronic
illnesses like diabetes and hypertension. Furthermore, physical activity releases
endorphins, which are natural mood lifters that reduce stress and anxiety. This
positive impact on mental health is just as important as the physical benefits, as it
contributes to overall well-being. The combination of these benefits underscores
the critical role that regular exercise plays in maintaining a healthy lifestyle.
Therefore, incorporating regular physical exercise into daily routines is vital for
achieving and sustaining good health."
•Topic Sentence: "Regular physical exercise is essential for maintaining overall
health." This sentence introduces the main idea that the paragraph will discuss.
•Supporting Details and Evidence: Provides specific benefits of exercise, such
as improved cardiovascular health, weight regulation, and reduced risk of
chronic illnesses, backed by research.
•Explanation and Analysis: Explains the significance of these benefits,
including the mental health advantages of exercise.
•Concluding Sentence: Reinforces the main idea by summarizing the
importance of regular physical exercise for overall health.
•Every sentence in this paragraph is focused on supporting the central idea that
regular physical exercise is crucial for maintaining health, demonstrating unity
throughout the paragraph.
DEVELOPMENT
• Effective paragraphs are not only unified, they are fully developed, which
means that they don’t leave any significant questions in readers’ minds.
When you are writing a paragraph, you must be sure to trace the full
development of your ideas for readers so they will understand the
assumptions, evidence and reasoning you used.
• There are three ways to ensure that your paragraphs are fully developed:
by providing the right level of supporting detail, choosing the right kind of
evidence and choosing the right pattern of development for your purpose.
Developing paragraphs with the right level of detail
To fully develop the sub-topic of the essay’s main idea in a paragraph, you must
provide your readers with details. It is not enough to make assertions. Your
readers must understand fully how you reached your conclusion.
What leads you to the conclusion you make in the paragraph? What texts and
ideas do you refer to that influenced your thinking? What reasoning do you use?
To make sure you’ve provided the right level of detail, try using the 5Ws to
imagine what questions an informed reader might ask. Does your paragraph
give enough detail to answer important what and when questions? Does
it answer who, where, and why questions? Although you will probably not have
to address all of these, a fully developed paragraph provides enough supporting
detail to answer questions any engaged, informed reader might ask.
Developing paragraphs with the right kind of detail
Not only is it important to provide enough detail for your readers, it’s important to
provide the right kind of detail, and that will depend on the purpose of your essay.
The kind of detail will also depend on the demands of the assignment and the
discipline you are writing in.
For example, if you are asked to write a personal essay, your details might be
examples of personal experiences. If you are asked to write a history paper, the
“right” kind of details might come from your analysis of a historical text, and
support in an argumentative essay might come from both analysis and reasoning.
Developing paragraphs with the right pattern of development
The particular kind of support you provide will depend largely on the pattern of
development you use for your paragraph, which, in turn, depends on its purpose.
If you are trying to make a point by telling a story, then you might use narrative.
If the purpose is to explain, step by step, how something is done, then a process
pattern might be better. The key is in selecting the right pattern of development,
keeping in mind that you can use a variety of patterns in the same essay.
One way to think about different types of arrangements or patterns is on a

continuum from the types most likely to be found in creative writing to the types
found in analytical writing. On such a continuum, narration would be on the most
creative end and cause and effect and definition on the analytical end:
COHERENCE
• All the concepts, propositions and examples within the paragraph should
be clearly related to each other and go with the main idea of the paragraph
expressed in the topic sentence.
• Coherence in a paragraph ensures that all sentences flow logically and
smoothly from one to the next, creating a unified and clear piece of
writing.
key principles and techniques for achieving coherence:
• 1. Logical Order
• Purpose: Arrange sentences in a logical sequence to make the paragraph easy to follow.
• Example: Present ideas in chronological order, cause and effect, or from general to specific.
• 2. Use of Transitional Words and Phrases
• Purpose: Connect ideas and guide the reader through the paragraph.
• Examples:
• Addition: furthermore, moreover, additionally
• Contrast: however, on the other hand, nevertheless
• Cause and Effect: therefore, thus, consequently
• Examples: for instance, for example, such as
3. Consistent Point of View and Verb Tense
•Purpose: Maintain consistency to avoid confusing the reader.
•Example: If you start in the past tense, keep using the past tense
throughout the paragraph unless there's a logical reason to switch.
4. Repetition of Key Words and Synonyms

•Purpose: Reinforce the main idea and ensure the paragraph stays
focused.
•Example: If the paragraph is about "renewable energy," repeat the
term or use synonyms like "solar power," "wind energy," etc.
“Adopting renewable energy sources is essential for sustainable development.
Firstly, renewable energy sources such as solar and wind power produce
electricity without emitting greenhouse gases. This reduction in emissions is
crucial for combating climate change. Additionally, renewable energy is
inexhaustible, unlike fossil fuels, which are finite and depleting rapidly.
Moreover, advancements in technology have made renewable energy more
affordable and accessible. As a result, many countries are now investing in
renewable infrastructure, which not only supports environmental goals but also
stimulates economic growth by creating jobs in the green energy sector.
Therefore, the shift towards renewable energy is not only a viable alternative to
fossil fuels but also a necessary step towards a sustainable and prosperous
future."
Explanation of Coherence Techniques Used:
•Logical Order: The paragraph follows a logical sequence, starting with the
environmental benefits, moving to technological advancements, and
concluding with economic benefits.
•Transitional Words: Words like "Firstly," "Additionally," "Moreover," and
"Therefore" help connect ideas smoothly.
•Consistent Point of View and Verb Tense: The paragraph maintains a
consistent point of view and verb tense, using present tense throughout.
•Repetition of Key Words and Synonyms: Terms like "renewable energy,"
"solar," and "wind power" are repeated to reinforce the main idea.
PARAGRAPH LENGTH
• You might be wondering, “how do I know when to start a new paragraph?” or

“how long should a paragraph be?” Usually, these questions are related to
how well paragraphs are developed and unified, and essentially, there is no
one, right answer. In extreme cases, you might find a paragraph as short as
one sentence or as long as a page if it achieves the writer’s purpose.
• However, most paragraphs fall somewhere between these two extremes, and
while there are no hard and fast rules, there are a few principles you can use to
determine proper paragraph length:
PARAGRAPH LENGTH
1. The paragraph should be long enough to fully develop your topic.

2. The paragraph should focus on one topic
3. The paragraph length should support the effect you are trying to create. Keep in mind that
longer paragraphs slow readers down and shorter paragraphs are easier and quicker to read.
4. A paragraph of over 12 sentences in an academic essay probably needs to be divided.
5. A paragraph of 5 or fewer sentences in an academic essay probably needs to be developed
further or combined with another paragraph.
6. Paragraph length can vary greatly from discipline to discipline.

Introduction To Novels

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Introduction To Novels

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INTRODUCTION TO

• A novel is a lengthy work of fiction that explores human experiences

• Protagonist: The main character around whom the story revolves.

• Who is this person?

• First Person: The narrator is a character in the story (uses “I”).

First Person Subjective

First Person Objective

Third Person Limited Subjective

Third Person Objective

Third Person Multiple Subjective

Third Person Omniscient

• Man vs. Man: Conflict between characters.

1) Man vs. Man

2) Man vs. Self

3) Man vs. Society

• Literary analysis - the examination and evaluation of a literary work.

• To interpret literature, readers should consider elements like the following:

Literary Definition Sample Analytical Questions

People in the story How do the characters change

Conversation that characters How does the dialogue impact the

• To interpret literature, readers should consider elements like the following:

Literary Definition Sample Analytical Questions

Event of the story What is the main conflict?

• To interpret literature, readers should consider elements like the following:

Literary Definition Sample Analytical Questions

• To interpret literature, readers should consider elements like the following:

Literary Definition Sample Analytical Questions

1. Read and Understand the Prompt

1. Read and Understand the Prompt

1. Read and Understand the Prompt

Did you notice any contradictions or ironies?

1. Read and Understand the Prompt

2. Critically Read the Text

3. Craft a Thesis Statement

3. Craft a Thesis Statement

4. Develop and Organize Arguments

There’s no single method of argumentation that will work in every context.

5. Write the introduction

Answer the “So what?” question.

Indicate the shape of the essay to come.

Your introduction should not :

Your introduction should not :

Your introduction should not :

6. Write the body paragraphs

Begin with a strong topic sentence.

Fully and completely develop a single thought.

Use transitions effectively.

Use transitions effectively.

7. Write the Conclusion

A good conclusion will:

- Revisit the “So what?” question.

A good conclusion will:

- Move from the specific to the general.

A good conclusion will:

A good conclusion will:

- Avoid making overblown closing statements.

When writing the essay…

• Literary analysis is the examination and evaluation of a literary work.

• When reading or analyzing a text, it can be useful to reflect on the