• Ganga river basin-

Is the largest river basin of India.

Originates from Himalayas and fall into Bay of Bengal.

• Indus river basin-

Originates from Lake Mana Sarovar (Himalayas).
India- Indo-Pak border.
Falls in to Arabian sea.

• Godavari River basin

The Godavari originates in the Western Ghats of central India
near Nashik in Maharashtra, Falls- Bay of Bengal.
• Krishna River basin
The Krishna River is the fourth-largest river in terms of water inflows and river basin
area in India, after the Ganges, Godavari and Brahmaputra.
Originates from Near Mahabaleshwar, Jor village, Dist- Satara
Falls in bay of Bengal

• Brahmaputra river basin-

Enters from assam and Arunachala Pradesh
Originates from Kailash, Tibet
Fall in to bay of Bengal

• Mahanadi river basin-

Originate from Odissa and Chhattisgarh border.
Falls into bay of Bengal.

• Narmada
Originates from Amarkantak MP
Fall into Arabian sea-
Problems of Regional
Hydrology
What is Regional Hydrology ?

• Regional Hydrology is a branch of hydrology focused

on the study of hydrological processes on a regional
scale. It is used to understand how water moves
through watersheds, how climate influences water
supply, and how water use affects water resources.
Micro, Meso, and Macro.
Ganga River
Ganga is the largest river in India with religious importance for Hindus. It provides the
majority of the water to North India which is about 40% of India’s population approximately 11
states, serving an estimated population of 500 million people or more, which is larger than any
other river in the world. This means that the pressure on the Ganga River is extremely high.
Over time this pressure has begun showing. This pressure is due to the water pollution that we
dump into the river.
Let’s take a closer look at all that goes into our holy Ganga River.

• Human Waste

• Industrial Waste

• Religious Wastes

• Dams and Pumping Station

Conclusion
Lack of rain = poor plant cover = poor root density = maybe poor
infiltration = high potential for non-wettable soils; and in areas with
short term, intense rain, high runoff, potential for flash flood, severe
channel erosion or gullying, limited habitat for life, just a few species
that are adapted to the harsh conditions. Soil development is limited. If
there is grazing, food is so scarce that overgrazing may be a problem.
Streams are typically dry, loosing streams with little or no groundwater
access. Permanent water holes with good water are in high demand, and
potentially easily polluted. Water for human uses, would typically be
limited. Water, where it is found is the most important thing for life and
development, so planning or allocating its use is important --whoever
controls the water, likely controls everything else.
A river basin, also known as a watershed or catchment area, is an area of land that drains water into a river and its tributaries.
The characteristics of a river basin can vary depending on a number of factors, including the climate, geology, topography, and
land use. Some common characteristics of river basins include:

• Drainage Area: The size of a river basin can range from a small stream that drains a few hectares to a large river
basin that spans thousands of square kilometers.

• Topography: The topography of a river basin plays a critical role in determining the flow of water. The shape of
the land determines the speed at which water moves, the depth of the river, and the number and size of
tributaries.

• Climate: The amount and type of precipitation that falls within a river basin influence the amount of water
available for runoff and groundwater recharge. In some areas, seasonal variations in rainfall and snowmelt can
result in significant changes in the water flow.

• Geology: The underlying geology of a river basin determines the types of soils and rocks present, which in turn
affects the quality of the water and the types of vegetation that grow.

• Land Use: Human activities within a river basin can significantly impact its water quality and quantity. Land use
practices such as agriculture, urban development, and deforestation can lead to soil erosion, sedimentation, and
pollution of water bodies.
• Hydrology: The hydrology of a river basin refers to the movement and distribution of water within the system.
This includes surface water flow, groundwater recharge, and evaporation.

• Biodiversity: The river basin provides habitat for a variety of plant and animal species, which are adapted to
the specific environmental conditions within the basin.

• Cultural Significance: The river basin is often an important cultural and historical resource, providing water
for irrigation, transportation, and other economic activities, as well as spiritual and recreational opportunities.
Drought

• Drought is a prolonged period of abnormally dry weather conditions in a region, resulting in a shortage of water supply for
human, animal and plant populations. It is usually characterized by a lack of rainfall or precipitation, which can lead to low
soil moisture levels, reduced stream flow, depleted groundwater reserves, and other negative impacts on the environment
and human activities.

• Droughts can occur in both arid and semi-arid regions as well as in areas with typically abundant rainfall, and can range in
severity from mild to severe, lasting for weeks, months, or even years. Droughts can have significant economic,
environmental, and social impacts, including crop and livestock losses, increased risk of wildfires, reduced water
availability for households, businesses, and industries, and negative effects on ecosystems and wildlife.

Some of the common causes of drought include:

• Lack of precipitation: Drought can occur due to a prolonged period of low precipitation, such as decreased rainfall,
snowfall, or dew.

• Climate change: Changes in global weather patterns due to climate change can lead to more frequent and severe droughts
in some regions.

• Soil moisture deficit: Drought can occur when evaporation exceeds precipitation and the soil becomes too dry to support
plant growth.
• High temperatures: Extreme heat can increase evaporation rates, causing soil moisture to evaporate more
quickly, leading to drought.

• Human activities: Human activities such as deforestation, urbanization, and overuse of water resources can
alter natural water cycles and contribute to drought.

• El Niño and La Niña: These ocean-atmospheric phenomena can disrupt normal weather patterns, causing
drought in some regions.

• Topography: Areas with high elevations or mountain ranges may receive less rainfall due to the rain shadow
effect, leading to drought.

• Natural disasters: Natural disasters such as wildfires, hurricanes, and floods can lead to drought by damaging
infrastructure, reducing vegetation cover, and altering water cycles.

Overall, drought is a complex phenomenon that can be caused by a combination of natural and
human factors, and it requires comprehensive and sustainable solutions to manage and mitigate
its impacts.
Drought mitigation
• Drought mitigation refers to the measures taken to reduce the impacts of drought, which is a prolonged period of
abnormally low precipitation that can lead to water shortages and a range of economic, social, and environmental
problems. Some strategies for drought mitigation include:

1. Conservation and efficient use of water: Encouraging people to conserve water by reducing usage and adopting water-
efficient technologies can help reduce the overall demand for water.

2. Improved water management: Implementing better water management practices, such as water recycling and rainwater
harvesting, can help increase the available water supply during times of drought.

3. Land use management: Land use management practices such as reducing deforestation, improving soil health, and
managing land degradation can help increase the capacity of the land to retain water and reduce soil erosion during
droughts.

4. Diversification of water sources: Developing alternative water sources, such as desalination, groundwater recharge, and
water transfers, can help mitigate the impacts of drought by increasing the availability of water.

5. Early warning systems: Developing early warning systems and monitoring drought conditions can help communities
prepare for and respond to drought events more effectively.

6. Financial support: Providing financial assistance to affected communities, such as subsidies or low-interest loans for water
conservation and management, can help mitigate the economic impacts of drought.
Effect of drought
Droughts can have a wide range of impacts on the environment, society, and the economy. Some of the effects of
droughts include:
1. Crop failure: Droughts can cause crops to wither and die, resulting in reduced yields and, in some cases, total
crop failure. This can lead to food shortages and price increases.

2. Water scarcity: Droughts can lead to water shortages, which can affect drinking water supplies, agriculture,
and industry. In some cases, water rationing may be necessary.

3. Wildfires: Drought conditions can increase the risk of wildfires, as dry vegetation is more susceptible to
ignition.
4. Economic losses: Droughts can have significant economic impacts, particularly in areas where agriculture is a
major industry. Farmers may face financial losses due to crop failures, and businesses that rely on water, such
as hydroelectric power plants, may also be affected.

5. Environmental damage: Droughts can lead to environmental damage, such as the depletion of groundwater
resources and the loss of habitats for wildlife.

6. Health risks: Droughts can lead to increased health risks, such as dehydration and heat-related illnesses.
Overall, the effects of droughts can be severe and long-lasting, and they can have significant impacts on
both human and natural systems.
• Drought is a recurrent phenomenon in India, with an average of 50% of the country affected every year. The country has
experienced several severe droughts in recent years, causing significant damage to agriculture, livestock, and the economy.

• One of the most severe droughts in recent times was the 2016 drought, which affected over 330 million people across ten
states in India. The drought was caused by the failure of the monsoon rains, which account for about 80% of India's annual
rainfall. The delayed onset of the monsoon season in 2016 resulted in a prolonged dry spell, which led to a severe water
shortage and crop failure in many parts of the country.

• The drought had a severe impact on agriculture, which is the primary source of livelihood for a large proportion of the
population. The drought resulted in a significant decline in crop production, particularly in states such as Maharashtra,
Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh, which are major producers of crops such as sugarcane, cotton, and groundnut. The drought
also led to a significant decline in the availability of water for irrigation, leading to further crop losses.

• The drought had a significant impact on the livestock sector, with many farmers being forced to sell their animals due to the
lack of water and feed. The drought also led to a significant decline in milk production, affecting the income of many dairy
farmers.
A CASE STUDY OF LATUR DROUGHT 2016

Latur is a city in the state of Maharashtra, India, that has experienced severe drought conditions in recent years. The drought in
Latur started in 2015 and lasted for several years, causing significant damage to the region's agriculture, water resources, and
socio-economic conditions. The drought in Latur was caused by a combination of factors such as the El Niño phenomenon, a
lack of rainfall, and groundwater depletion due to overexploitation.
The impact of drought on agriculture was severe, with crop yields declining by up to 80%. Farmers were forced to abandon
their fields, and many lost their livelihoods. Water scarcity was a significant issue in the region, with many households having
to walk several kilometers to fetch water. The lack of clean water also led to an increase in water-borne diseases, affecting
the health of the local population. The government of Maharashtra implemented several measures to address the drought in
Latur. The government arranged for the transportation of water from other regions, and many private organizations and
individuals also came forward to donate water to the affected areas. The government also initiated programs to recharge
groundwater, conserve water, and promote the use of drought-resistant crops. One of the innovative solutions implemented
in Latur was the use of a train to transport water to the city. The train was called the 'Jaldoot Express' and was used to
transport water from a reservoir in Sangli to Latur. This initiative was successful in providing water to the city and helped to
mitigate the impact of the drought to some extent. the drought in Latur highlights the severe impact of drought on
agriculture, water resources, and the socio-economic conditions of the affected population. The government and other
stakeholders must work together to implement effective drought management strategies to mitigate the impact of drought
and ensure sustainable water management in the long run. The innovative solutions implemented in Latur, such as the
Jaldoot Express, demonstrate the potential of using technology and creative solutions to address the challenges posed by
drought in India.
In conclusion, drought is a severe and prolonged period
of water scarcity that can have significant impacts on
agriculture, hydrology, and socioeconomic conditions. It
is a natural phenomenon that occurs due to various
factors such as weather patterns, climate change, and
human activities. Droughts can be classified based on
their severity, and in India, the severity is assessed by
the Indian Meteorological Department (IMD). It is
essential to monitor and mitigate the impacts of drought
to minimize the damage caused to crops, ecosystems,
and human livelihoods. Effective drought management
strategies such as water conservation, crop
diversification, and drought-resistant crop varieties can
help to minimize the impacts of drought and ensure
sustainable water management in the long run.
Flood
• Flood refers to an overflow of water onto land that is typically dry, caused by heavy rainfall, snowmelt, or a combination of
these factors. Floods can also occur due to coastal storm surges, tsunamis, or the failure of man-made structures such as
dams or levees.
• Floods can be extremely destructive, causing damage to buildings, infrastructure, and agricultural land, as well as loss of life.
They can also lead to the displacement of people and can have long-term economic and social impacts on affected
communities.
• Floods can occur in both rural and urban areas, and it is important for individuals and communities to take appropriate
measures to prepare for and respond to floods, such as developing emergency plans, monitoring weather forecasts, and
ensuring that buildings and infrastructure are designed and constructed to withstand flooding.

Floods can be caused by various factors, including natural and human-induced factors. Some of the most common causes
of floods are:

• Heavy rainfall: Intense or prolonged rainfall can cause floods by exceeding the capacity of rivers, lakes, and other water
bodies to hold water.

• Rapid snowmelt: A sudden rise in temperature or heavy rainfall can cause snow and ice to melt rapidly, leading to flash
floods.

• Dam or levee failure: The collapse or failure of a dam or levee can result in a sudden and catastrophic release of water,
leading to flooding downstream.
• Coastal storms: Severe storms, such as hurricanes or cyclones, can cause storm surges and flooding in coastal areas.

• Urbanization: Urbanization and the associated increase in impermeable surfaces like concrete and asphalt can lead to
increased runoff and flooding in urban areas.

• Deforestation: The removal of trees and other vegetation can result in soil erosion and decreased absorption of water,
leading to increased runoff and flooding.

• Climate change: The effects of climate change, such as rising sea levels and changes in precipitation patterns, can increase
the likelihood and severity of floods.

Flood mitigation refers to the actions taken to reduce or prevent the impact of flooding on communities and
infrastructure. Some of the common strategies for flood mitigation include:
• Floodplain management: This involves managing the use of land in areas that are prone to flooding, such as by zoning laws,
building codes, and regulating the construction of new buildings.

• Early warning systems: Installing systems that provide advance notice of impending floods, allowing people to evacuate
and take necessary precautions.

• Structural measures: This includes constructing physical structures such as levees, floodwalls, and dams to divert or contain
floodwater.

• Natural flood management: This approach involves using natural features such as wetlands and forests to reduce flooding
by slowing down the flow of water and reducing erosion.
• Education and awareness: Educating communities about flood risks and appropriate responses during floods, such as
evacuation procedures and building flood-resistant infrastructure.

• Planning and preparedness: Developing emergency plans and strategies for responding to floods, including stockpiling
supplies, and training emergency responders.

Overall, a combination of these measures can help mitigate the impact of floods and reduce the risk of property
damage and loss of life.

Floods can have significant impacts on both human and natural environments. Some of the most common effects of
floods include:
• Property damage: Floods can cause extensive damage to homes, buildings, infrastructure, and personal property.

• Displacement of people: Floods can force people to evacuate their homes and seek shelter elsewhere, leading to temporary
or permanent displacement.

• Economic losses: Floods can disrupt economic activities, causing losses in agricultural production, business interruption,
and increased insurance costs.

• Public health: Floods can increase the risk of waterborne diseases, and the destruction of sewage systems can exacerbate
the spread of diseases.

• Environmental damage: Floods can lead to soil erosion, loss of habitat, and damage to ecosystems, including the death of
plants and animals.
• Infrastructure damage: Floods can cause significant damage to transportation systems, bridges, and other critical
infrastructure, leading to disruption of services.

• Psychological effects: Floods can cause stress, anxiety, and trauma, particularly among those who experience personal
losses, displacement, or disruption of daily routines.
floods can have long-lasting impacts on both human and natural environments, and the effects can be severe and
costly.
Floods can be classified into different types based on their causes, duration, and severity. Here are some of the most
common types of floods:
• River floods: These are caused by heavy rainfall, snowmelt, or a combination of both, leading to the overflowing of
rivers and streams.

• Flash floods: These are sudden and intense floods that occur within a few hours or minutes, often caused by heavy
rainfall, dam or levee failure, or sudden snowmelt.

• Coastal floods: These are caused by severe storms, such as hurricanes or cyclones, leading to storm surges and flooding
in coastal areas.

• Urban floods: These are caused by heavy rainfall or inadequate drainage systems, resulting in water accumulation in
urban areas, particularly in low-lying areas.

• Dam-break floods: These occur when a dam or reservoir fails, leading to the sudden release of large volumes of water
downstream.
• Landslide or debris flow floods: These are caused by landslides or debris flow that obstruct river channels or create dams,
leading to flooding upstream.

• Ice-jam floods: These occur when ice blocks the flow of rivers or streams, leading to water accumulation and flooding.

• The classification of floods can also vary by region, as different regions may experience different types of floods depending
on their climate, topography, and infrastructure.

One significant flood that affected India in recent years was the 2019 Kerala floods. The floods occurred in August 2019 and
were caused by the heaviest monsoon rainfall the state had seen in nearly a century. The floods affected all 14 districts of the
state, causing severe damage to infrastructure, homes, and agricultural land. According to the National Disaster Management
Authority (NDMA), the floods caused 483 deaths and affected more than 5.4 million people, with over 1.4 million people
being displaced. The floods caused extensive damage to homes, roads, bridges, and other infrastructure, including electricity
and water supply systems. The floods also caused landslides in many areas, leading to further damage and loss of life. The
Kerala government, along with the Indian Army, Navy, Air Force, and other agencies, conducted rescue and relief operations
to help the affected people. The government also set up relief camps and provided essential supplies to those who were
displaced. The Kerala floods highlighted the vulnerability of India's densely populated coastal areas to natural disasters, and
the importance of adequate disaster preparedness and mitigation measures. The government has since initiated various
programs to increase the capacity of communities and infrastructure to withstand natural disasters, including floods.
Basin surface run-off
• Basin surface run-off refers to the water that flows over the surface of the land within a
specific drainage basin and eventually enters into a river, lake, or ocean. It is caused by
precipitation, such as rain or snow, and can be affected by factors such as the topography,
soil type, vegetation cover, and land use practices in the basin.

• The amount and timing of surface run-off can have significant impacts on the water
balance and ecosystem of the basin. Excessive surface run-off can cause soil erosion,
landslides, and flooding, while insufficient run-off can lead to water scarcity and reduced
water quality.

• Understanding and managing surface run-off is an important aspect of water resource

management, particularly in areas with high rainfall variability or where water resources
are under stress due to climate change and human activities. Techniques such as soil
conservation practices, land use planning, and watershed management can help to reduce
the impacts of surface run-off and ensure sustainable water use.
River discharge
River discharge is the volume of water flowing through a river channel per unit time. It is an essential parameter
for hydrological studies and water resource management. The measurement of river discharge can be done
using different methods, depending on the size of the river, the location, and the available resources.

• Current Meters: Current meters are instruments used to measure the velocity of water in a river. By measuring
the velocity at different depths across the channel, the discharge can be calculated using a mathematical
formula.

• Float Method: This method involves measuring the time it takes for a floating object to travel a known distance
downstream. The discharge is then calculated using the velocity of the water and the cross-sectional area of the
river.

• Dilution Method: In this method, a known amount of salt or dye is added to the river, and the concentration of
the salt or dye is measured downstream. By knowing the amount of salt or dye added and the change in
concentration downstream, the discharge can be calculated.

• Acoustic Doppler Current Profilers (ADCP): ADCPs use sound waves to measure the velocity of water in a
river. This method is particularly useful for large rivers and can provide detailed information on the velocity
and direction of flow.
Current Meters Float Method
• Weirs and Flumes: Weirs and flumes are structures placed in the river to control the flow and measure the
discharge.

• Rating Curve: A rating curve is a graphical representation of the relationship between the water level and the
discharge in a river. By measuring the water level at different points along the river and using the rating
curve, the discharge can be estimated.

Weirs and Flumes

Rating Curve

Each of these methods has its advantages and disadvantages, and the choice of method depends on various factors such as
the accuracy required, the size of the river, and the available resources.
There are several formulas that can be used to calculate the velocity of water in a river using a current meter. One
commonly used formula is:

V = (N/T) * K

where:

V = velocity of water (m/s)

N = number of revolutions of the meter in a given time period (e.g. 60 seconds)
T = time period for the number of revolutions (e.g. 60 seconds)
K = constant
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