Introduction to

Forensic
Science and
Criminalistics

Chapter 1

Prepared by
Peter Bilous
Eastern Washington
University
What is Forensic Science?
 Forensic: having to do with the law
 Science: derived from the Latin word
Scientia meaning knowledge
 Forensic Science: science in the
service of law
 Forensic Science can be applied to both
civil and criminal cases

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Value of Forensic Science
 The scientific examination of physical
evidence can help to answer the
following investigative and legal
questions:
 Who?
 What?
 When?
 Where?
 But NOT Why!!!

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Value of Forensic Science
Major areas of contribution include:
 Corpus Delicti
 Support or Disprove Statements
 Identify Substances or Materials
 Identify Individuals
 Provide Investigative Leads
 Establish Linkages or Exclusions

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 1. Corpus Delicti
 A Latin term which refers to the “body” or
elements of a crime
 The essentials facts showing that a crime has
been committed
 Examples include:
 Identification of a controlled substance in a drug
possession case
 Determination of blood alcohol concentration in a
possible drunk driving case

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2. Evaluation of Statements

 The scientific examination and analysis

of physical evidence can provide
objective information by which
statements made by witnesses, victims
or suspects can be evaluated.
 The scientific findings can either support
or contradict statements made by
someone in a case.

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 3. Identification of
Substances
 The scientific examination of physical
evidence can provide an identification of
substances or materials.
 Examples include:
 Identification of an illegal drug in a possessions
case.
 Detection of an ignitable liquid in a suspected
arson case.
 Detection of gunshot residue on the hands of a
suspect in a shooting case.

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4. Identification of
Individuals
 The scientific examination of physical
evidence can provide an identification of
individuals.
 Identification can be obtained through
the examination of the following types of
physical evidence:
 DNA from biological evidence
 Fingerprint impressions
 Dental information in skeletal remains

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 5. Provide Investigative
Leads
 Physical evidence can be helpful at the
investigative phase
 A search of a database can lead to a match
with a known sample
 For example:
 A forensic DNA profile comparison to samples in
the Combined DNA Indexing System (CODIS) DNA
database
 A forensic fingerprint comparison to samples in the
Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS)
database

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6. Establish Linkages or
Exclusions
 Physical evidence can be used to
establish a common origin or a possible
association
 Evidence may connect a suspect to a
victim, suspect with a scene, or an
instrument with a victim or suspect
 Similarly, physical evidence may
eliminate an individual (an exclusion or
dissociation), thus guiding an
investigation in a new direction
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 History of Forensic Science
Mathieu J. B. Orfila:
 One of the most renowned medicolegalist of the

time was Mathieu Orfila (1787-1853)

 Mathieu Orfila is best known for

his involvement in the “Lafarge”

arsenic poisoning case in France– wife
poisoned husband- first tox case-- arsenic
 He is often referred to as the

“father of forensic toxicology”

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 History of Forensic Science
Alphonse Bertillon:
 Developed an anthropometric system for human
identification in the 1890s
 The limitations of this system was
shown by its inability to distinguish
between two Leavenworth, Kansas,
penitentiary prisoners, Will West &
William West
 The Bertillon system was eventually
replaced by the fingerprint system
being developed by Francis Galton,
William Hershel, Edward Henry &
others in the late 1800s

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Bertillon’s system of bodily measurements as used for the identification
of an individual.
 Development of Forensic Science
Laboratories
Edmond Locard:
 Established one of the world’s
first police crime laboratories
in Lyon, France in 1910
 Known for the Locard Exchange
Principle

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Science & the Scientific
Method
 Forensic science, is first and foremost, a
science
 Scientists use a multi-step method of
inquiry known as the Scientific Method
 The scientific method consists of:
 Careful observation
 Conjecture/hypothesis
 Testing of hypothesis (experimentation)
 Confirmation or refinement of hypothesis
 Repetitive

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 Science & the Scientific
Method
1. Careful Observation:
 The first step is to be observant and inquisitive
about events and phenomena in the natural
world
2. Developing a Hypothesis:
 An educated guess
 Must be an
experimentally
testable
proposition

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Science & the Scientific
Method
3. Testing the Hypothesis:
 Experiments are devised to test the
hypothesis
 Experiments must be controlled
 Controlled experiments are designed to
determine the effect of one variable at a
time

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Science & the Scientific
Method
4. Refining the Hypothesis:
 Hypotheses must be continuously refined
(re-tested)
 A well tested hypothesis is known as a
theory
 A well tested theory is known as a natural
law
 No hypothesis, theory, or natural law is
absolute

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The Scientific Method & its
Application to Forensic Science
 The scientific method is an important
component of the forensic sciences
 Why?
 Forensic science is a science
 A logical and productive approach for crime
scene investigations
 Used to reconstruct crime scene events
based on theory which can be refined

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 Forensic Science Specialties
Forensic Pathology:
 Pathology is a specialty area of medicine
 Pathology is the study of diseases and the bodily
changes caused by the diseases
 Forensic pathologists determine the
cause of death (the medical reason
why a person died; e.g.
asphyxiation)
 Forensic pathologists determine
the manner of death (the circum-
stances causing death; e.g. homicide)

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Forensic Science Specialties
Forensic Entomology:
 Entomology is a branch of biology devoted to
the study of insects
 Forensic entomologists use insects as
investigative aids
 By examining insects, larvae or pupae
associated with a corpse, knowing the life cycle
of insects, and by using the existing
environmental factors, forensic entomologists
can estimate the time of death

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 Forensic Science Specialties
Forensic Odontology:
 Odontology is the study of the physiology,

anatomy, and pathology of teeth

 Forensic odontologists perform two types

of analyses involving the human dentition

 Identify human remains by comparing premortem
and postmortem dental X-rays
 Bite mark comparisons (crime scene marks to
known bite marks)

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 Forensic Science Specialties
Forensic Anthropology:
 Physical Anthropology is the
science of the human
skeleton and how it has
evolved over time

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Forensic Science Specialties
Forensic anthropologists:
 Can determine whether found remains are
of human or animal origin
 Reconstruct the skeleton from found remains
 Provide an estimate of age, stature, and
gender
 Can sometimes determine racial origin
 Detect skeletal abnormalities and any trauma
 Can provide information about the cause of
death

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Forensic Science Specialties
Forensic Toxicology:
 Forensic toxicology is the study of the effects of
extraneous materials such as poisons and drugs
in the body
 Forensic toxicologists must determine both the
presence and the amounts of extraneous
materials in the body
 Assist the medical examiners in determining the
cause of death
 May be involved in the determination of ethanol
levels in blood and breath samples

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 Forensic Science Specialties
Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology:
 Psychiatry is a branch of medicine concerning the
diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of mental
illness
 Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and
behavior of humans
 Forensic psychiatrists & psychologists evaluate
offenders for civil and criminal competence and may
be involved in offender treatment programs
 A few specialize in “profiling” of criminal cases,
primarily serial murderers and serial rapists

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Forensic Science Specialties
Forensic Engineering:
 Involved in the investigation of transportation

related accidents, material failures, and

structural failures
Forensic Computer Science:
 Use information located on computers and

other electronic devices as investigative aids

 Find hidden or deleted information to

determine if internet based crimes have been

committed

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Forensic Science Specialties
Four major areas of examination:
 Forensic Biology
 Forensic Chemistry
 Pattern evidence
 Other patterns (scene reconstruction)

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 Forensic Science Specialties
Criminalistics:
 Criminalistics involves the recognition,

identification, individualization, and evaluation

of physical evidence using methods of science

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Elements of Forensic Evidence
Analysis
Criminalists usually are keen in one of the
four areas:
 Recognition
 Classification (identification)
 Individualization
 Reconstruction

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 Elements of Forensic Evidence
Analysis
1. Evidence Recognition:
 Recognition of physical objects as evidence or
potential evidence is the first step in a
forensic investigation
2. Classification (identification):
 Physical evidence must be classified (i.e.
identified) according to their basic
characteristics
 Classification places an object within a group
of similar objects

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 Elements of Forensic Evidence
Analysis
3. Individualization:
 Individualization implies uniqueness of an item
or person among members of their class
 Individualization may result
from:
 Evidence characteristics that are
considered to be unique among
members of its class
 A comparison of a questioned
item with a known item indicates
a common origin

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 Elements of Forensic Evidence
Analysis
4. Reconstruction:
 The objective of reconstruction is to understand
the nature and sequence of events which created
a particular item of evidence
 The proper approach to reconstruction is to use
the scientific method
 Criminalists must make observations, develop a
working hypothesis, and thoroughly test the
hypothesis
 The hypothesis must accommodate all evidence
and information

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