Sociology

for Cambridge IGCSE™ and O Level

Unit 2: Identity: self and society

cambridge.org/education
 2.1 How do we learn our identity?
This section examines the social constructions of culture, norms,
values, customs and roles, and how these are created by, and then
influence, human behaviour.

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 Key terms related to identity (1)
• social construction: the idea that social situations and events are
made by societies; they do not exist in nature as independent things.
• culture: the way of life of a society.
• norms: the behaviour that societies expect of their members in
particular situations.
• values: standards shared by members of a culture and used to judge
whether behaviour is right or wrong.
• customs: norms in a particular society that are widely accepted and
continue over time.
• laws: rules, usually formalised by government, that are used to order
the way in which a society behaves.
• role: the patterns of behaviour expected of someone because of their
status in society.

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 Key terms related to identity (2)
• status: a position that someone has in a society; status can be ascribed
(fixed by others) or achieved.
• social identity: an individual’s perception of themselves, based partly
on ideas about how others see them.
• stereotype: an oversimplified set of ideas about a particular type
of person or social group.

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 The social construction of our identity
Our social identity, or image of ourselves, is formed through interaction
with others.
• Identifying ourselves as male or female is our gender identity.
• We develop other identities in groups and situations – within our
family, at work, at school, and so on.
We can choose how to respond to the identities we see ourselves
as having.
• For example, a person with a disability may see their disability as
an important aspect of their identity because they are often treated
differently from others.
• They can deal with this in different ways, for example:
• by passively accepting inferior treatment
• by rejecting the label and fighting back to emphasise their abilities.

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 The nature–nurture debate
The nature–nurture debate is about the extent to which our personality,
attitudes and behaviour are decided by our genes (our nature) or by
our social environment (nurture).
This is a long-running debate with arguments on either side.
nature: (in the nature–nurture debate) the influence of biological
factors on human behaviour.
nurture: (in the nature–nurture debate) the influence of society
and culture on human behaviour.

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 The relativity of culture
Human cultures are very diverse – they are not fixed or universal.
What is considered normal in one culture may be considered strange,
deviant or offensive in another. Areas of cultural variation include:
• language
• norms of dress and appearance
• food and drink
• traditions, such as rituals and festivals
• ideas about morality.
Cultures change over time, which also shows the relativity of culture.

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 Socialisation
• Socialisation is the process by which the norms and values of
a culture are passed on.
• Socialisation happens throughout life.
• agencies of socialisation: the groups and institutions which carry
out the process of socialisation.
• primary socialisation: the process by which infants and young
children absorb the basic norms and values of their culture.
This is the first and most important stage of socialisation,
which usually takes place in the family during childhood.
• secondary socialisation: later socialisation, when people learn
more specific norms for particular statuses and roles.

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 Agencies of socialisation
The main agencies of socialisation are:
• family
• education
• peer groups
• media
• religion
• workplace.

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 Key words related to socialisation
• canalisation: channelling children
towards activities that are considered
appropriate for them (for example,
because of their gender).
• hidden curriculum: what learners
learn in school, apart from the content
of lessons, such as the importance
of following rules and the consequences
of not doing so.
• peer pressure: the influence of a group of people of the same age
and status, to force or persuade its members to conform.
• role modelling: when someone acts as an example, so their behaviour
is copied by others.

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 Sociological perspectives (1)
Sociological perspectives are theoretical viewpoints on how society
operates, including functionalism, Marxism and feminism.
• Conflict perspectives assume there are basic disagreements
between social groups (for example, based on social class or
gender differences).
• Consensus perspectives assume that the people within a society
generally share the same values. (Consensus means agreement.)

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 Sociological perspectives (2)
• Functionalism: a consensus perspective which sees all the institutions
of society as working in the best interests of everybody. People are
socialised into a value consensus, accepting society’s norms and
values so that everything runs smoothly.
• Marxism: a conflict perspective which sees a division between the
two main classes – the bourgeoisie (the owners of wealth and
property) and the proletariat (the working class). People are socialised
into norms and values that work in the interests of the bourgeoisie.
• Feminism: a conflict perspective which argues that society is
patriarchal – men control society and women are subordinate.
Men and women are socialised to accept this power difference
as natural.

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 2.2 How does society control us?
• social control: ways in which members of society are made to conform
to norms and values.
• informal social control: ways of controlling behaviour imposed
by people without a formal role to do this (such as peers).
• formal social control: social control imposed by people or organisations
who have the authority to implement rules or laws.
• rewards: positive sanctions, such as praise.
• sanctions: ways of rewarding or punishing acceptable or unacceptable
behaviour; usually used in the sense of punishment (negative sanctions).

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 Consensus vs conflict views of
social control
• Consensus views, such as functionalism, believe social control
is positive and essential to the continued stability of society.
• Conflict views, such as Marxism, see social control as negative
because it allows the ruling class to remain in power, keeping the
working class under control.
• Feminists focus on the social control of women by men.

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 The main agencies of formal social control (1)
• Government:
• passes laws that control what people can and cannot do.
• Police:
• enforce laws
• carry out surveillance – to detect and prevent crimes
• investigate crimes
• arrest and charge people who break laws.
• Courts:
• hear cases brought against people accused of breaking the law
• decide on their innocence or guilt
• impose punishments, including fines or prison sentences.

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 The main agencies of formal social control (2)
• Penal system:
• oversees the punishments
imposed by the courts.
• Prisons:
• people in prisons and detention
centres lose their liberty.
• Armed forces:
• can break up demonstrations
and protests.

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 Methods used by formal agencies of
social control
• Law-making
• Coercion
• Digital surveillance
• Arrest
• Sentencing, including
imprisonment and fines

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 The main agencies of informal social control
Agencies of socialisation are also agencies of informal social control.
They include:
• family
• education
• peer groups
• media
• religion
• workplace.

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 Methods used by informal agencies of
social control
• Family – parental rewards
• Education – school punishments
• Peer groups – ostracism
• Media – social media ‘likes’
• Religion – ideas of heaven
and hell
• Workplace – being given a
warning or being demoted to
a lower post

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 Resistance to social control (1)
• Sub-cultures are groups of people in a culture whose norms and
values are different in some ways to those of the wider culture.
• Some sub-cultures offer resistance to the social control of the
wider culture.
• Examples include:
• protest groups
• online sub-cultures
• youth sub-cultures
• religious sub-cultures.

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 Resistance to social control (2)
• protest group: a group of people who order to bring about a change
in society (for example, to voting rights or environmental legislation).
• online sub-cultures: groups of people who connect with each other
online, through social media or other websites (such as forums and
chat rooms). They share distinct norms and values, often related to
a particular interest or issue.
• youth sub-culture: a sub-culture of adolescents or young adults
who are usually distinguishable by their style, dress and/or
musical preference.
• religious sub-culture: a sub-culture based on religious faith and
practices which are distinct from those of the wider culture.

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 1.3 What influences our social identity?
Social identity refers to an individual’s perception of themselves,
based partly on ideas about how others see them.
Key aspects of identity are:
• age
• gender
• ethnicity
• social class.

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 Age and identity
• Different societies divide their members into age groups
in different ways.
• This includes different ideas about when childhood, adulthood
and old age start and end.
• Different societies also have different expectations of people
in different age groups.
• Age can therefore be seen as socially constructed, despite
its apparent biological basis.

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 Gender and identity
• In many past societies – and in some today – gender roles were
fixed and there was little scope for individuals to negotiate them.
• Men who conform to the expected gender role of their society
are seen as masculine, while women who conform to the expected
gender role are seen as feminine.
• In modern industrial societies, masculinity and femininity are often
seen as opposites (as in ‘the opposite sex’).
• However, like age, gender is socially constructed and expectations
associated with masculinity and femininity are changing.

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 Ethnicity and identity (1)
• Ethnicity is a social construct.
Ethnic groups exist only because
people identify themselves and
others as members of groups.
• For many people, ethnic identity
is important and is a source of
pride. It provides a sense of
shared identity.
• In some countries, there is a majority ethnic group. The majority
group is bigger than other groups, which are referred to as minority
ethnic groups.

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 Ethnicity and identity (2)
• Common differences between ethnic groups include:
• language or dialect
• customs and traditions
• religion and mythology
• shared ancestry and history
• food
• costume.
• Over time, as ethnic groups live alongside each other and perhaps
marry, they tend to adopt some of the features of other groups.
• This can create hybrid cultures – cultures formed by mixing or
blending different ethnic traditions.

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 Social class and identity
• Social class affects people’s life chances in many ways. However,
there are no clear boundaries between classes.
• Sociologists – and the people concerned – often disagree with each
other about how social class should be defined.
• Sociologists usually refer to three broad classes: upper, middle and
working class. Membership of these classes relates to factors such
as occupation, income, norms and values.
• An individual’s social class can have a big impact on their lifestyle and
identity but some sociologists, including postmodernists, suggest that
social class is becoming less significant in today’s world.

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 The digital self and online identities
• Digital technologies, such as computers and smartphones,
have become part of everyday life for many people.
• They have affected cultures and identities in many ways,
both positive and negative.

• digital self/online identities: the way that someone presents

themselves online, and the personae they adopt in online
communities, such as forums and social media.
• virtual community: an online group of individuals who share
interests, personal opinions or backgrounds.
• digital surveillance: the use of digital technology to observe
and control behaviour.

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 Globalisation
• Globalisation describes the process by which the world is becoming
more interconnected.
• It involves the feeling that the world seems to be getting smaller,
because people and cultures around the world have more contact
with each other and are more aware of each other.
• Globalisation is often described as involving changes in politics,
economics and culture.
• Some sociologists see cultural globalisation as the spread of Western,
or specifically North American, culture. This could lead to a homogenisation
of identities.

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 Key terms relating to globalisation (1)
• globalisation: the complex process
by which different cultures around
the world are increasingly aware
of, interact with and influence
each other.
• global culture: the idea that, as a
result of globalisation, there is or
will be a single culture shared by
people all around the world.

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 Key terms relating to globalisation (2)
• homogenisation of identities: when the differences between
identities of people around the world disappear, so they
become similar.
• cultural defence: ways in which some countries and peoples react
to globalisation by vigorously defending their culture, rejecting
outside influences and ideas.
• hybrid identities: when people combine and mix aspects of different
cultures to create new identities.
• multicultural society: a society in which many different cultures
or sub-cultures exist alongside each other.

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 Postmodernist views
• Postmodernism is the view that we now live in a new type of society,
different from the modern society that came before.
• In the past, identities were given, based on ascribed statuses such
as age, gender, ethnicity and social class.
• The postmodernist view is that people today have much greater
choice over their identities. These changes are linked with consumption:
the work someone does may be less important to their identity
than the ways they spend the money they earn from work.
• Postmodernists describe a pick-and-mix society, in which people can
choose from a range of options and select what suits them best.

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