Amplifier with a Positive Feedback

Multivibrator
 A Multivibrator isWhat
a two-stageisresistance
an coupled amplifier with positive feedback
from the output multivibrator?
of one amplifier to the input of the other. It is an electronic
circuit that generates periodic or non-periodic switching signals. It oscillates between
two states (like on/off) and is widely used for generating square waves, pulse signals,
and clock timings in digital electronics. These devices are very useful for pulse
generating, storing and as counting circuits.
 Two transistors are connected in feedback so that one controls the state of the other.
Hence the ON and OFF states of the whole circuit, and the time periods for which
the transistors are driven into saturation or cut off are controlled by the conditions of
the circuit.

Block diagram of a
Multivibrator
Types of
Multivibrators

Astabl
e
 There are three main types of multivibrators
1. Astable Multivibrator
•No stable state: Continuously oscillates between high and low (ON and
OFF) states without external triggering.
•Output: A square wave or clock signal.
•Use: Timers, pulse generators, or blinking LEDs.
2. Monostable Multivibrator (One-Shot Multivibrator)
•One stable state: It stays in one state until triggered and then switches
to the other state temporarily before returning.
•Output: A single pulse of predefined width in response to a trigger.
•Use: Pulse stretching, debouncing switches, or generating time delays.
3. Bistable Multivibrator (Flip-Flop)
•Two stable states: Stays in one state until triggered to switch to the
other.
•Output: Can maintain either state indefinitely until triggered.
•Use: Memory elements, such as in SR or D flip-flops for digital circuits.
Active HIGH – if the state change occurs from a
“LOW” to a “HIGH” on the clock’s pulse rising edge
or during the clock width.

Active LOW – if the state change occurs from a

“HIGH” to a “LOW” on the clock’s pulses falling
edge.
Clock Signal Waveform
Clock Width – this is the time during which the
value of the clock signal is equal to a logic “1”, or
HIGH.

Clock Period – this is the time between successive

transitions in the same direction, ie, between two
rising or two falling edges.

Duty Cycle – this is the ratio of the clock width to

the clock period.

Clock Frequency – the clock frequency is the

reciprocal of the clock period, frequency = 1/clock
period. ( ƒ = 1/T )
5
• Monostable Multivibrator: As the name is
indicating that it has a single stable state and a
quasi-state.
• Here, out of the two coupling networks, one
provides ac coupling and the other provides dc
coupling. Thus, providing one stable and one
quasi-state.
• The figure below will help to understand the basics
of monostable multivibrator:
• Unlike the astable multivibrator, here, a triggering
pulse is required in order to have transition from
the stable state to the quasi-state. However, in
order to have transition again from quasi-state to
a stable state no triggering pulse is provided.
• So, to have a stable state again, a predetermined
timing interval is provided as given in case of the
astable multivibrator.
• Thus, after a certain time period decided by the
time constant, the circuit comes back to its initial
state i.e., the stable state without the need of
external signal.
Monostable Multivibrator
• A monostable multivibrator, as the name implies, has only one stable
state. When the transistor conducts, the other remains in non-
conducting state. A stable state is such a state where the transistor
remains without being altered, unless disturbed by some external
trigger pulse. As Monostable works on the same principle, it has another
name called as One-shot Multivibrator.

Construction of Monostable Multivibrator

• Two transistors Q1 and Q2 are connected in feedback to one another.
The collector of transistor Q1 is connected to the base of transistor
Q2 through the capacitor C1. The base Q1 is connected to the collector of
Q2 through the resistor R2 and capacitor C. Another dc supply voltage –
VBB is given to the base of transistor Q1 through the resistor R3. The
trigger pulse is given to the base of Q1 through the capacitor C2 to
change its state. RL1 and RL2 are the load resistors of Q1 and Q2.
• The following figure shows the circuit diagram of a Monostable
Multivibrator.
Operation of Monostable Multivibrator

• Firstly, when the circuit is switched ON, transistor Q1 will be in OFF state
and Q2 will be in ON state. This is the stable state. As Q1 is OFF, the
collector voltage will be VCC at point A and hence C1 gets charged. A
positive trigger pulse applied at the base of the transistor Q 1 turns the
transistor ON. This decreases the collector voltage, which turns OFF the
transistor Q2. The capacitor C1 starts discharging at this point of time. As
the positive voltage from the collector of transistor Q2 gets applied to
transistor Q1, it remains in ON state. This is the quasi-stable state or
Meta-stable state.
• The transistor Q2 remains in OFF state, until the capacitor C1 discharges
completely. After this, the transistor Q2 turns ON with the voltage
applied through the capacitor discharge. This turn OFF the transistor Q 1,
which is the previous stable state.
Output Waveforms
The output waveforms at the collectors of Q1 and Q2 along with the trigger input given
at the base of Q1 are shown in the following figures.
• The width of this output pulse depends upon the RC time constant.
Hence it depends on the values of R1C1. The duration of pulse is given by

The trigger input given will be of very short duration, just to initiate the
action. This triggers the circuit to change its state from Stable state to
Quasi-stable or Meta-stable or Semi-stable state, in which the circuit
remains for a short duration. There will be one output pulse for one
trigger pulse.
Advantages
• One trigger pulse is enough.
• Circuit design is simple
• Inexpensive
Disadvantages
• The major drawback of using a monostable multivibrator is that the time
between the applications of trigger pulse T has to be greater than the
RC time constant of the circuit.
Applications
• Monostable Multivibrators are used in applications such as bounce back
switches, television circuits and control system circuits.
 Differen
ce
1.Astable - It is a free-running multi-vibrator which does not have any stable states and keeps
switching in between the 2 states due to which square wave pulses at a fixed frequency are
produced.

2.Monostable – It is a 1-shot multi-vibrator which has only 1 stable state. When an external
trigger is applied, it returns back to its 1st stable state.

3.Bistable – It is a kind of flip-flop which has 2 stable states. It produces a single pulse
with a positive or a negative.
 Applicatio
ns
The astable or free running multivibrator is used as a square wave frequency generator
As a timing oscillator or clock of a computer system.
It is also used for a flashing lights, switching and power supply circuits.

The monostable multivibrator is used as delay and timing circuits.

It is also used for temporary memories.
It is often used to trigger another pulse generator. It is used for regenerating old and worn out
pulses.

The bistable multivibrator or Flip Flop is of great importance in digital operation in computers, digital
communications.
It is also used for reversing to the supply to a given circuit or change supply to two circuit
at regular intervals.
AMPLIFIERS
 An amplifier is an
electronic device or
circuit which is used to
increase the magnitude
of the signal applied to
its input.

What is
an
Amplifier is the generic term used to describe a circuit which produces and
increased version of its input signal.
Amplifier?
In “Electronics”, small signal amplifiers are commonly used devices as they can
amplify a relatively small input signal, for example from a Sensor such as a photo-
device, into a much larger output signal to drive a relay, lamp or loudspeaker for
example.
Classification of Signal Amplifier

Type of Signal Type of Frequency of

Classification
Configuration Operation

Small Signal Common Emitter Class A Amplifier Direct Current (DC)

Large Signal Common Base Class B Amplifier Audio Frequencies (AF)

Common Collector Class AB Amplifier Radio Frequencies (RF)

VHF, UHF and SHF

Class C Amplifier
Frequencies
 Amplifier Gain
The introduction to the amplifier gain can be said to be the relationship that
exists between the signal measured at the output with the signal measured at
the input.

Different Kinds of amplifier gain:

Voltage Amplifier
Gain

Current
Amplifier Gain

Power Amplifier
Gain
 Amplifier
• Voltage Amplifiers − The amplifier circuit that increases the voltage
level of the input signal, is called as Voltage amplifier.
• Power Amplifiers − The amplifier circuit that increases the power
level of the input signal, is called as Power amplifier.
• An audio power amplifier (or power amp) is an electronic amplifier
that amplifies low-power electronic audio signals such as the signal
from radio receiver or electric guitar pickup to a level that is high
enough for driving loudspeakers or headphones.
Introduction of Power amplifier

• Power amplifiers are used to deliver a relatively high amount of power, usually
to a low resistance load.
• Typical load values range from 300W (for transmission antennas) to 8W (for
audio speaker).
• Although these load values do not cover every possibility, they do illustrate the
fact that power amplifiers usually drive low-resistance loads.
• Typical output power rating of a power amplifier will be 1W or higher.
• Ideal power amplifier will deliver 100% of the power it draws from the supply to
load. In practice, this can never occur.
• The reason for this is the fact that the components in the amplifier will all
dissipate some of the power that is being drawn form the supply.

21
 Concept of Power Amplifier

• Provide sufficient power to an output load to drive other power device.

• To deliver a large current to a small load resistance e.g. audio speaker;

• To deliver a large voltage to a large load resistance e.g. switching power supply;

• To provide a low output resistance in order to avoid loss of gain and to maintain
linearity (to minimize harmonic distortion)

• To deliver power to the load efficiently

22
 Power Amplifier Power Dissipation

VCC

The total amount of power being I CC

dissipated by the amplifier, Ptot , is

Ptot = P1 + P2 + PC + PT + PE I1
I CQ
P1 = I12R1 R1 RC PC = I2CQR C
The difference between this total
value and the total power being
drawn from the supply is the power PT = I2TQ R T
that actually goes to the load – i.e.
output power. I EQ
P2 = I22R2 R2 RE PE = I2EQ R E

I2

23
FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS
 Feedback Amplifier
The Feedback Amplifier are important electronic circuit, which is used to shape the
signal. They have mainly two types which are positive and negative feedback.
Negative feedback stabilizes and improves amplifier precision and reliability,
enhancing characteristics like bandwidth, distortion reduction, and gain control.
Positive feedback, while potentially increasing gain, requires careful handling due to
the risk of distortion and instability. Shunt and series configurations are common
feedback types, with shunt reducing distortion and adding stability, while series
ensures accurate amplification.

• Positive feedback
• Negative feedback
• Voltage series
• Voltage shunt
• Current series
• Current shunt feedback
 Feedback
• In the feedback process a part of output is sampled and fed
back to the input.
• The fed back signal can be in phase with or out of phase with
the original input signal.

Definition of feedback:

• Feedback is defined as the process in which a part of output

signal (voltage or current) is returned back to the input.
• The amplifier that operates on the principle of feedback is
known as feedback amplifier.
Types of feedback
1. Positive feedback
2. Negative feedback.

If the original input signal and the feedback signal are

in phase, the feedback is called as positive
feedback.
However if these two signals are out of phase then the
feedback is called as negative feedback.
 Amplifier Without Feedback

• The most important thing to understand from Fig. is that the

output and input terminals of this amplifier are not connected
to each other in any way.
• Therefore the amplifier of Fig. is an amplifier without any
feedback,

Gain without feedback.

 Amplifier With Feedback

• Here the same amplifier with a gain A is being used along with
a mixer network, sampling network and a feedback network.
• The voltage gain of the feedback amplifier is given by,

Gain with feedback

 Amplifier with a Negative
Feedback

The block diagram of an amplifier with a Negative Feedback

Vf = β Vo
Where Vf = Feedback signal (output of the feedback network)
Feedback factor β = Vf
Vo
 Types of Negative Feedback
Depending on the type of sampling and mixing networks, the feedback amplifiers are
classified into four categories:

Voltage series feedback

Current series feedback
Current shunt feedback
Voltage shunt feedback
 Voltage Series Feedback

Therefore,
voltage series feedback = voltage sampling + series mixing
The voltage series feedback is present in the voltage amplifiers.

A transistor amplifier which uses the voltage series feedback is the

common collector or emitter follower amplifier:
1. A common collector (or emitter follower) amplifier using BJT.
2. A common drain (or source follower) amplifier using FET.
 Current Series Feedback

Therefore
Current sampling + Series mixing.

• Current series feedback is present in the transconductance amplifiers.

 Current Shunt Feedback

• This is a combination of current sampling and shunt mixing.

The block diagram of a feedback amplifier with current shunt
feedback is shown in Fig.
Current sampling + Shunt mixing
• Current shunt feedback is present in the current amplifiers.
 Voltage Shunt Feedback
• The block diagram of an amplifier with voltage shunt feedback
amplifier is shown in Fig.

Voltage Shunt Feedback = Voltage Sampling + Shunt Mixing.

• The voltage shunt feedback is present in the transresistance
amplifier.
 Advantages & Disadvantages
Advantages
• Negative feedback stabilizes the gain of the amplifier.
• Input resistance increases for certain feedback configurations.
• Output resistance decreases for certain feedback configurations.
• Operating point is stabilized.

Disadvantages
• Reduction in gain.
• Reduction in input resistance in case of voltage shunt and current shunt type amplifiers.
• Increase in output resistance in case of current shunt and current series feedback
amplifiers.
Applications of negative feedback
• In a1most all the electronic amplifiers.
• In the regulated power supplies.
• In wideband amplifiers (amplifiers having a large bandwidth)
 AMPLIFICATION CLASSES
• CLASS A AMPLIFIERS.
• CLASS B AMPLIFIERS.
• CLASS AB AMPLIFIERS.
• CLASS C AMPLIFIERS.
 CLASS A
AMPLIFIERS
The most commonly used type of power
amplifier configuration is the Class A Amplifier.
The Class A amplifier is the most common and
simplest form of power amplifier that uses the
switching transistor in the standard common
emitter circuit configuration. The transistor is
SINGLE STAGE always biased “ON” so that it conducts during
AMPLIFIER one complete cycle of the input signal waveform
producing minimum distortion and maximum
amplitude to the output.
This means then that the Class A Amplifier
configuration is the ideal operating mode,
because there can be no crossover or switch-off
distortion to the output waveform even during
the negative half of the cycle.
Class A power amplifier output stages may use a
single power transistor or pairs of transistors
 CLASS A AMPLIFIER
• The efficiency of the circuit is very low, less than 50% as the transistor
conducts even when the input is zero. Current flows through the load in
order to produce the 10V drop. This means that energy is being dissipated in
the form of heat.
• Advantage:
• Good quality output signal as the transistor is operating on a
• linear portion of it’s characteristic.
• Disadvantage:
• Poor efficiency limits its use as a power amplifier – tends to be used for pre-
amplifiers only.
CLASS B
AMPLIFIERS
To improve the full power efficiency of the
previous Class A amplifier by reducing the wasted
power in the form of heat, it is possible to design
the power amplifier circuit with two transistors in
its output stage producing what is commonly
termed as a Class B Amplifier also known as a
push-pull amplifier configuration.
 CLASS B
AMPLIFIERS
This places the amplifier designer/user in a dilemma. The Class A amplifier uses
devices that always pass high currents, and small signals only modulate these by a
modest amount, avoiding the above problems. Alas, Class A is very power inefficient.
Class B is far more efficient, but can lead to signal
distortions. The solution is to find a ‘half-way house’ that tries to take the good points
of each and minimise the problems. The most common solution is Class AB
amplification.
Advantages:
More efficient than Class A – quoted value is 78.5% Disadvantages:
•Cross over distortion
•Normally requires a positive and negative supply.
CLASS AB
AMPLIFIER
As its name suggests, the Class AB Amplifier is a combination of the “Class A” and
the “Class B” type amplifiers we have looked at above. The AB classification of
amplifier is currently one of the most common used types of audio power amplifier
design. The class AB amplifier is a variation of a class B amplifier as described
above, except that both devices are allowed to conduct at the same time around the
waveforms crossover point eliminating the crossover distortion problems of the
previous class B amplifier.
The two transistors have a very small bias voltage, typically at 5 to 10% of the
quiescent current to bias the transistors just above its cut-off point. Then the
conducting device, either bipolar of FET, will be “ON” for more than one half cycle,
but much less than one full cycle of the input signal. Therefore, in a class AB
amplifier design each of the push-pull transistors is conducting for slightly more than
the half cycle of conduction in class B, but much less than the full cycle of conduction
of class A.
In other words, the conduction angle of a class AB amplifier is somewhere between
180oand 360o depending upon the
 CLASS AB
AMPLIFIER
• The advantage of this small bias voltage, provided by series diodes or
resistors, is that the crossover distortion created by the class B amplifier
characteristics is overcome, without the inefficiencies of the class A
amplifier design. So the class AB amplifier is a good compromise between
class A and class B in terms of efficiency and linearity, with conversion
efficiencies reaching about 50% to 60%.
CLASS C
AMPLIFIER
The Class C Amplifier design has the greatest
efficiency but the poorest linearity of the classes of
amplifiers mentioned here. The previous classes, A, B
and AB are considered linear amplifiers, as the output
signals amplitude and phase are linearly related to the
input signals amplitude and phase.
However, the class C amplifier is heavily biased so
that the output current is zero for more than one half
of an input sinusoidal signal cycle with the transistor
idling at its cut-off point. In other words, the
conduction angle for the transistor is significantly less
than 180 degrees, and is generally around the 90
degrees area.
While this form of transistor biasing gives a much
improved efficiency of around 80% to the amplifier,
it introduces a very heavy distortion of the output
signal. Therefore, class C amplifiers are not suitable
for use as audio amplifiers.
 CLASS C AMPLIFIER
• Due to its heavy audio distortion, class C amplifiers are commonly used in
high frequency sine wave oscillators and certain types of radio frequency
amplifiers, where the pulses of current produced at the amplifiers output can
be converted to complete sine waves of a particular frequency by the use of
LC resonant circuits in its collector circuit.