Chapter 3

Production of x-rays,
bremsstrahlung and characteristic x-rays

Reference:
Khan and Gibbons, “The Physics of Radiation Therapy”, 5th ed. 2014,
Lippincott Williams and Wilkins.
Chapter 3 ‘Production of x-rays, bremsstrahlung and characteristic x-rays ’.

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 Chapter 3 Production of X-Rays
X-rays were discovered by Roentgen in 1895 while
studying the cathode rays (streams of electrons) in a tube.
This new radiation could penetrate opaque substance,
produce flourescence, blacken a photographic plate, and
ionize gas. It is a form of electromagnetic radiation.

Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen (1845-1923) the radiograph of Mrs. Roentgen's hand2

 g-rays and x-rays are both photons
(electromagnetic radiation).

g-rays originate from

inside the nucleus
X-rays originate from
outside the nucleus

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3.1 The X-Ray Tube

The main components of an x-ray

tube are the cathode and the
anode, sealed opposite to each
other in a highly evacuated
vacuum tube.

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3.1 The X-Ray Tube
3.1 The X-Ray Tube

The cathode is a tungsten filament

which when heated emits electrons
(thermionic emission).

The anode consists of a copper rod and a piece of tungsten

target (for producing the x-rays).
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3.1 The X-Ray Tube
 3.1 The X-Ray Tube
Tungsten is used as target because of its high Z (74) and high melting point (3370C).

Copper is used
for its high heat
conduction

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3.1 The X-Ray Tube
3.1 The X-Ray Tube

The x-ray beam emerges through a thin glass window in the tube envelope.
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3.1 The X-Ray Tube
3.1 The X-Ray Tube
Anode hood is used to shield unwanted stray
radiation

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3.1 The X-Ray Tube
3.1 The X-Ray Tube (the anode)

Heat is removed by oil (which also serves as an insulator to the tube

housing from high voltage applied to the tube), water or air from
outside the tube. Sometimes, a rotating anode is used to reduce the
temperature of the target at any one spot.

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3.1 The X-Ray Tube
 3.1 The X-Ray Tube (the anode, cont’d)
The focal spot is the
target area from which
the x-rays are emitted. It
should be as small as
possible for producing
sharp radiographic
images. For therapy
tubes, relatively larger
focal spots are The apparent size of the focal spot is
acceptable since the related to the apparent side a = A sin.
image quality is not a
primary concern.

In diagnostic radiology, the angle is small (6-17), producing apparent focal spot sizes
from 0.10.1 to 2.02.0 mm. For therapy tubes, the angle is larger (30), producing
areas from 55 to 77 mm.
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3.1 The X-Ray Tube
Anode Heel Effect shorter pathlength,
longer pathlength,
more transmission
less transmission

Variation of X-Ray Intensity and Maximum X-ray Beam Size

Because of the Anode Heel Effect
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3.1 The X-Ray Tube
 a negatively charged
3.1 The X-Ray Tube (the cathode) focusing cup (to direct
electrons towards the
anode).

a circuit (to provide

filament current),

filament (to emit electrons),

The size of the focal spot depends on the filament size. On a diagnostic
tube, there are usually 2 filaments to provide “dual-focus”.
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3.1 The X-Ray Tube
 The low voltage (~10V) circuit
3.2 Basic X-Ray Circuit to supply heating current to the
The circuit can be divided into two parts: filament.
to provide the accelerating potential
The high voltage (~100 kV) circuit

for the electrons.

Figure 3.3. Simplified circuit diagram of a self-rectified x-ray unit. 13

3.2 Basic X-Ray Circuit
3.2 Basic X-Ray Circuit

The filament current can be

adjusted to control the x-ray
output (intensity).

The high-voltage can be adjusted by an autotransformer (rheostat, a variable resistor).

Figure 3.3. Simplified circuit diagram of a self-rectified x-ray unit. 14
3.2 Basic X-Ray Circuit
3.2 Basic X-Ray Circuit

The alternating voltage

is characterized by its
peak voltage = 2 
line voltage

Figure 3.3. Simplified circuit diagram of a self-rectified x-ray unit. 15

3.2 Basic X-Ray Circuit
3.2 Basic X-Ray Circuit
For example, a 220V line voltage (Vrms), after being stepped
up by an x-ray transformer of turn ratio 500:1, the resultant
peak voltage applied to the x-ray tube is:
220 2 500 155,564 V 155.6 kV

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3.2 Basic X-Ray Circuit
 The anode is positive relative to the
cathode only through half of the cycle,
3.3 Voltage Rectification during which the current flows through.
During the other half, the voltage is
reversed and the current cannot flow
through. A machine operated this way is
called self-rectified.

Rectifier, valve or solid state

(semiconductor), is used to
prevent the current to flow in
the wrong direction. Half-wave
rectification allows the current
to flow in the right direction
(only half of the cycle).

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3.3 Voltage Rectification
 electron flow
3.3 Voltage Rectification A(-) ABCDEFGH
A(+) HGCDEFBA

Full-wave rectification
allows the current to flow
throughout the cycle in
the right direction.

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3.3 Voltage Rectification
 3.4 High-Output X-ray Generators

A. Three-Phase Generators
The three-phase (3f) power line is
supplied to produce high output x-
rays.

With the three-phase power and  Vmax  Vmin 

  100 13% ~ 25%
full-wave rectification, six voltage  Vmin 
pulses are applied to the x-ray tube
during each power cycle (three-
phase, six-pulse system).

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3.4 High-Output X-ray Generators
 3.4 High-Output X-ray Generators

B. Constant Potential Generators

A constant potential generator produces a constant stream of radiation as
well as a greater percentage of higher energy “useful” radiation. The
voltage supplied to the tube is nearly constant, with a ripple of less than
2%. However, it is a very large and expensive generator, used only for
special applications.

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3.4 High-Output X-ray Generators
 3.4 High-Output X-ray Generators

C. High-frequency Generators

This generator uses a single-phase

line voltage which is rectified and
smoothed and converted into a high
frequency (5 to 100 kHz) alternating
current (AC) voltage.

The principal advantages of a high-frequency generator are

(a) reduced weight and size,
(b) low voltage ripple,
(c) greatest achievable efficiency of x-ray production,
(d) maximum x-ray output per mAs, and
(e) shorter exposure times.
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3.4 High-Output X-ray Generators
3.5 Physics of X-Ray Production

There are two mechanisms by which x-rays are produced:

1. Bremsstrahlung ( 制動輻射 ): incoming electron interacts
with the nucleus, giving out photons.
2. Characteristic x-rays ( 特性輻射 ): incoming electron
knocks out one of the atomic electrons, creating an hole
in the shell; characteristic x-ray emitted as a result of
the hole being refilled by an outer-shell electron.

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3.5 Physics of X-Ray Production
3.5 Physics of X-Ray Production (Bremsstrahlung)

When an electron passes near a nucleus, its

path is deflected and loses energy as
bremsstrahlung photons.
0 < h < E (electron energy)

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3.5 Physics of X-Ray Production
Unfiltered Bremsstrahlung Energy Spectrum (for T0 << m0c2)

Thin target
Electron Duane and Hunt’s law (1915)
beam

Kramers spectrum
Thick target (Kramers, 1923)
Electron
beam

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3.5 Physics of X-Ray Production
 3.5 Physics of X-Ray Production (Bremsstrahlung, cont’d)

For high-energy electrons (MeV), bremsstrahlung photons

emitted mostly in forward direction, for low energy electrons
(100 keV), they are more isotropic (equal in all directions).

Transmission-type targets are

used in megavoltage x-ray
In the low-voltage x-ray tubes,
tubes (accelerators): the
it is advantageous to obtain the
electrons bombard the target
x-ray beam on the same side of
from one side, the x-ray beam
the target, i.e., at 90 degrees
is obtained on the other side.
with respect to the electron
beam direction. 25
3.5 Physics of X-Ray Production
3.5 Physics of X-Ray Production (Bremsstrahlung, cont’d)

The probability of bremsstrahlung production  Z2.

The efficiency = 9  10-10 ZV
For example, with tungsten target (Z=74), the efficiency
for electrons accelerated through 100 kV is :
9  10-10  74  105 = 0.67%
The rest of the energy (>99%) dissipated as heat.

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3.5 Physics of X-Ray Production
 3.5 Physics of X-Ray Production (Bremsstrahlung, cont’d)

Example: calculate the rise in temperature of a rotating anode after an

exposure of 100 mA for 2 s at constant potential of 100 kV.
Assume the target to have a mass of 500 g and the surface area of the
bombarded region to be 30 cm2 (L = 30 cm, ab = 1 cm).
The density of tungsten is 19.3 g/cm3 and the specific heat is 0.03 cal/g.

ab L

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3.5 Physics of X-Ray Production
 3.5 Physics of X-Ray Production (Bremsstrahlung, cont’d)

(a) Assume the heat instantly distributes itself over the whole of the anode
and none is lost by heat transfer;
(b) Assume no heat escapes from the immediate area of the bombarded
region but is concentrated to a depth of 1 mm under the bombarded
area.
Energy input = 100  103 V  0.1 A  2 s = 2  104 J.
Heat input to anode = 2  104 J = 2  104 /4.18 cal ~ 5  103 cal
(4.18 J = 1 calorie)
Thermal capacity of anode = 500 g  0.03 cal/g/C = 15 cal/ C
(a) Rise in temperature of anode = 5  103 cal / 15 cal/ C = 330 C
(b) Mass of bombarded volume = 30  0.1 cm3  19.3 g/cm3 = 58 g
rise in temperature = 5  103 cal / (58 g  0.03 cal/g/ C ) = 2900
C.
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3.5 Physics of X-Ray Production
 3.5 Physics of X-Ray Production (characteristic x-rays)
This energy is
discrete, and
characteristic to a
particular element.
Recall that the energy
spectrum of
bremsstrahlung K-characteristic x-ray
photons is continuous. hvk=EK-EL

Primary electron after

collision E0-DE

Primary
electron E0

K
Ejected K-electron, DE-EK
L
M 29
3.5 Physics of X-Ray Production
K-Fluorescence Photon Energy

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 59.321 keV,
100

57.984 keV,
57.6 67.2 keV,
32.1
69.1 keV,
8.4

31 31
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 If no filtration, the theoretical energy
3.6 X-Ray Energy Spectra spectrum is a straight line. However, due to
inherent and additional filtration, the low-
energy portion of the spectrum is reduced,
making the beam ‘harder’, that is, more
penetrating.

The maximum energy on the

spectrum is the energy of the
incoming electron, which
equals to the value of the
applied voltage peak (e.g. 100
keV electrons from 100 kVp).
The average energy is approx.
1/3 of the maximum energy.

The quality of the x-ray beam is specified by a quantity half-value layer. ( 半值層 )

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3.6 X-Ray Energy Spectra
 3.7 Operating Characteristics
The x-ray output is measured by the quantity, exposure, defined as the amount of
ionization produced per mass of air.
tube
filament
current
The x-ray output is very sensitive to the filament

current
current, thus it is important to keep it stable for

tube
voltage

The x-ray output is linearly

proportional to the tube current,
and varies approximately as
squares of the tube voltage
(kilovoltage).
2
x  ray output  I tubeVtube
constant output.

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3.7 Operating Characteristics
Exposure  total amount of radiant energy
= area under the curve

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3.7 Operating Characteristics
Doubling the # of electrons  doubling the radiant energy
(tube current) (output)
 Output  tube current

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3.7 Operating Characteristics
Doubling the peak energy  quadrupling the radiant energy
(tube voltage) (output)
 Output  (tube voltage)2
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3.7 Operating Characteristics