Data Analytics with R

BDS306C

Prepared By,
Dr. Anitha DB
Associate Professor & Head
Department of CSE-Data Science
ATME College of Engineering, Mysuru

ATME College of 1
Department of CSE-DS, ATMECE
Engineering, Mysuru
Module1 : Basics of R

• Introducing R,
• Initiating R,
• Packages in R,
• Environments and Functions,
• Flow Controls, Loops,
• Basic Data Types in R,
• Vectors

ATME College of 2
Department of CSE-DS, ATMECE
Engineering, Mysuru
 Module1 : Basics of R

1.1 Introducing R
• R is a Programming language
• R also refers to the software that is used to run the R program
• Ross Ihaka and Robert Gentleman from University of Auckland created R language in 1990s.
• R is a free open source software
• It is more advanced statistical programming language and it can produce outstanding graphical outpts.
• It is extremely flexible.
Features of R
• R is an interpreted language and not compiled one. This means that all commands typed on the keyboard
are directly executed without need to build the complete program like C,C++ or Java.
• R’s Syntax is very simple.

ATME College of 3
Department of CSE-DS, ATMECE
Engineering, Mysuru
 Module1 : Basics of R

1.2 Installing R
R is available in several forms, essentially for Unix and Linux machines, or some precompiled binaries for
windows, Linux and Macintosh.
The files needed to install R, either from the source or from the precompiled binaries are distributed from the
internet site of the Comprehensive R Archive Network(CRAN) where the instructions for the installation are
also available.
R can be installed from the link http://www.r-project.org using internet connection.
Use the “Download R” link in web page to download the R Executable.
Choose the version of R that is suitable for your operating system.
R scripts can run without the installation of IDE, the R-Studio using R-Console.
Once R installation completed then install R Studio.
ATME College of 4
Department of CSE-DS, ATMECE
Engineering, Mysuru
 Module1 : Basics of R

1.2 Installing R

ATME College of 5
Department of CSE-DS, ATMECE
Engineering, Mysuru
 Module1 : Basics of R

1.2 Installing R
R Studio is an Integrated Development Environment
that consists of a GUI with four parts
1. A text editor,
2. Command line interpreter,
3. Place to display files, plots, packages and help
information
4. Place to display the data being used and variables
used in the program(Environment/History)

ATME College of 6
Department of CSE-DS, ATMECE
Engineering, Mysuru
 Module1 : Basics of R

1.3 Initiating R
1.3.1 First Program
Open R GUI, find the command prompt and type the command below and hit enter to run the command
>sum(1:5)
[1] 15
The result above shows that the command gives the result 15. That the command has taken the input of
integers from 1 to 5 and has performed the sum operation on them.
In the above command sum() is a function that takes the argument 1:5 which means a vector that consists of
sequence of integers from 1 to 5.

ATME College of 7
Department of CSE-DS, ATMECE
Engineering, Mysuru
 Module1 : Basics of R

1.3 Initiating R
1.3.2 Help in R
• There are many ways to get help from R.
• If a function name or dataset name known then we can type ? followed by the name.
• If name is not known then we need to type ?? Followed by a term that is related to the search function.
• Keywords, special characters and two separate terms of search need to be enclosed in double or single quotes.
• The symbol # is used to comment a line in R program.
? name or help( ) or help.search()

ATME College of 8
Department of CSE-DS, ATMECE
Engineering, Mysuru
 Module1 : Basics of R

1.3 Initiating R
1.3.3 Assigning Variables
• The result of the operations in R can be stored for reuse.
• The values can be assigned to the variables using the symbol “< -” or “=“ of which the symbol “<-” is preferred.
• There is no concept of variable declaration in R.
• The variable type is assumed based on the value assigned

Examples
> x<-1:3
>x
[1] 1 2 3
> Y=4:6
>Y
[1] 4 5 6
> x+3*Y-2
[1] 11 15 19

ATME College of 9
Department of CSE-DS, ATMECE
Engineering, Mysuru
 Module1 : Basics of R

1.3 Initiating R
1.3.3 Assigning Variables
• The variable names consists of letters, numbers, dots and underscore, but a variable name should only starts
with an alphabet.
• The variable name should not be reserve words.
• To create a global variable (Variable available everywhere) we use the symbol “<<-”.

Example > assign("G",6*9,globalenv())

> x<<-exp(exp(1)) > assign("F",3*8) >G
>x >F [1] 54
[1] 15.15426 [1] 24 > print(G)
[1] 54
• Assignment operation can also be done using assign() function.
• For global assignment the same function assign() can be used, but ,by including an extra attribute globalenv().
• To see the value of the variable, simply type the name of variable in the command prompt.
• The same thing can be done using a print() function

ATME College of 10
Department of CSE-DS, ATMECE
Engineering, Mysuru
 Module1 : Basics of R

1.3 Initiating R
1.3.3 Assigning Variables

• If assignment and printing of a value has to be done in one line we can do the same in two ways.
• First method, by separating the two statements by a semicolon and
• The second method is by wrapping the assignment in parenthesis() as below.

> L<-sum(4:8);L
[1] 30
> (M<-sum(5:9))
[1] 35

ATME College of 11
Department of CSE-DS, ATMECE
Engineering, Mysuru
 Module1 : Basics of R

1.3 Initiating R
1.3.4 Basic Mathematical Operations
The “+” operator is used to perform the addition. Examples
> 7:12+12:17
It can be used to add two numbers or add two vectors.
[1] 19 21 23 25 27 29
Vector represents an ordered set of values.
> c(3,1,8,6,7)+c(9,2,5,7,1)
Vectors are mainly used to analyse statistical data.
[1] 12 3 13 13 8
The “:” colon operator creates a sequence .
Sequence is a series of numbers within the given limits.
The “c()” function concatenates the values given within the brackets “(“ and”)”.
Variable names in R are case sensitive.

ATME College of 12
Department of CSE-DS, ATMECE
Engineering, Mysuru
 Module1 : Basics of R

Examples
1.3 Initiating R > sum(7:10)
[1] 34
1.3.4 Basic Mathematical Operations > mean(7:10)
[1] 8.5
The vectors and c() function in R help us to avoid loops.
> median(7:10)
The statistical function in R can take the vectors as input and produce results. [1] 8.5
> sum(7,8,9,10)
The sum() function takes vector arguments and produces results. [1] 34
Similar to the “+” operator all other operators in R take vectors as inputs and can produce the results.
The subtraction and multiplication operations work as below.
Examples for subtraction Examples for Multiplication
> c(5,6,1,9)-2 > -1.4*-2.3
[1] 3 4 -1 7 [1] 3.22
> c(5,6,1,9)-c(4,2,0,7) > -1:4*3
[1] 1 4 1 2 [1] -3 0 3 6 9 12

ATME College of 13
Department of CSE-DS, ATMECE
Engineering, Mysuru
 Module1 : Basics of R

1.3 Initiating R
Examples
1.3.4 Basic Mathematical Operations
> identical(2^3,2**3)
The exponentiation operator is represented using the symbol “^” or the “**”.
[1] TRUE
This can be checked using the function identical()

Examples
The division operator is of three types. > 5:9/2
1. The ordinary division is represented using the “/” symbol. [1] 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5
2. The integer division operator is represented using the “%/%” symbol. > 5:9%/%2
3. The modulo division operator is represented using the “%%” symbol [1] 2 3 3 4 4
> 5:9%%2
[1] 1 0 1 0 1

ATME College of 14
Department of CSE-DS, ATMECE
Engineering, Mysuru
 Module1 : Basics of R

1.3 Initiating R
1.3.4 Basic Mathematical Operations
The other mathematical function are the trigonometry functions like sin(), cos(), tan(), asin(), acos(), atan()
and the logarithmic and exponential functions like log(), exp(), loglp(), expml().
All these mathematical functions can operate on vectors as well as individual elements.
Comparison or relational operators Examples
> c(2,4-2,1+1)==2
The operator “= =“ is used for comparing two values. [1] TRUE TRUE TRUE
> 1:5!=5:1
For checking inequalities of values the operator “!=“ is used. [1] TRUE TRUE FALSE TRUE TRUE
> exp(1:3)<20
The other relations operators are the ”<”, “>”, “<=“, “>=“. [1] TRUE TRUE FALSE
> (1:10)^2>=50
The relational operator also take the vectors as input [1] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE
TRUE TRUE TRUE
and operate on them.
ATME College of 15
Department of CSE-DS, ATMECE
Engineering, Mysuru
 Module1 : Basics of R

1.3 Initiating R
• Non-integers cannot be compared using the operator ”==“ because it produces
wrong results due to rounding off error of the floating numbers being > all.equal(sqrt(2)^2,3)
[1] "Mean relative difference: 0.5”
compared.
• To overcome this issue we have the function all.equal().
> isTRUE(all.equal(sqrt(2)^2,3))
Examples [1] FALSE
> sqrt(2)^2==2
[1] FALSE >c(“Week","WEEK","week","weak")=="week"
[1] FALSE FALSE TRUE FALSE
> sqrt(2)^2-2
[1] 4.440892e-16 > c("A","B","C")<"B"
[1] TRUE FALSE FALSE
> all.equal(sqrt(2)^2,2)
[1] TRUE > c("a","b","c")<"B"
[1] TRUE TRUE FALSE

ATME College of 16
Department of CSE-DS, ATMECE
Engineering, Mysuru
 Module1 : Basics of R

1.4 Packages in R
• R Packages are installed in an online repository called CRAN (Comprehensive R Archive
Network).
• A Package is a collection of R functions and datasets.
• Currently, the CRAN package repository features 10756 available packages.
• The list of all available packages in the CRAN repository can be viewed from the web site
"https:// cran.r-project.org/web/packages/available_packages_by_name.html".
• To find the list of functions available in a package (say the package is "stats") we can use
the command ls("package:stats") or the command library(help = stats) in the command
prompt.
ATME College of 17
Department of CSE-DS, ATMECE
Engineering, Mysuru
 Module1 : Basics of R

1.4 Packages in R
• A library is a folder in the machine that stores the files for a package.

• If a package is already installed on a machine we can load the same using the library() function.

• The name of the package to be loaded is passed to the library() function as argument without enclosing in
quotes.

• If the package name has to be programmatically passed to the library() function, then we need to set the
argument character.only = TRUE.

• If a package is not installed and if the library() function is used to load the package, it will throw an error
message.

• Alternatively if the require() function is used to load a package, it returns TRUE if the package is already
installed or it returns FALSE if the package is not already installed.
ATME College of 18
Department of CSE-DS, ATMECE
Engineering, Mysuru
 Module1 : Basics of R

1.4 Packages in R
• We can list and see all the packages that are already loaded using the search() function.

• This list shows the global environment as the first one followed by the recently loaded packages.

• The last two are special environments, namely, "Autoloads" and "base" package.

ATME College of 19
Department of CSE-DS, ATMECE
Engineering, Mysuru
 Module1 : Basics of R

1.4 Packages in R
• The function installed.packages() returns a data frame with information about all the packages installed in a
machine.
• It is safe to view the results of this using the View() function as it may list hundreds of packages.
• This list of packages also shows the version of the package installed, location on the machine and dependent
packages.

ATME College of 20
Department of CSE-DS, ATMECE
Engineering, Mysuru
 Module1 : Basics of R

1.4 Packages in R
The function R.home("library”) retrieves the location on the machine that stores all R default packages.
The same result can be accomplished using the .Library command.
The home directory can be listed using the path.expand (“~”) and Sys.getenv("HOME") functions.

ATME College of 21
Department of CSE-DS, ATMECE
Engineering, Mysuru
 Module1 : Basics of R

1.4 Packages in R
When R is upgraded, it is required to reinstall all the packages as different versions of R needs different
versions of the packages.
The function .libPaths() lists all the R libraries in the installed machine.
The first value listed is the place where the packages will be installed by default.

ATME College of 22
Department of CSE-DS, ATMECE
Engineering, Mysuru
 Module1 : Basics of R

1.4 Packages in R
• The CRAN package repository contains handful of packages that needs special attention.
• To access additional repositories, type setRepositories() and select the repository required.
• The repositories R-Forge and rforge.net contains the development versions of the packages that appear on the
CRAN repository.
• The function available.packages() lists thousands of packages in each of the selected repository. (Note: can
use the View() function to restrict fetching of thousands of the packages at one go)

ATME College of 23
Department of CSE-DS, ATMECE
Engineering, Mysuru
 Module1 : Basics of R

1.4 Packages in R
There are many online repositories like GitHub, Bitbucket, and Google Code from where many R Packages can
be retrieved.
The packages can be installed using the function install.packages() function by mentioning the name of the
package as argument to this function.
But, it is necessary to have internet connection to install any package and write permission to the hard drive.
To update the latest version of the installed packages, we use the function update.packages() with the argument
ask = FALSE which disallows prompting before updating each package.
To delete a package already installed, we use the function remove.packages() by passing the name of the
package to be removed as argument.
> install.packages("chron”)

ATME College of 24
Department of CSE-DS, ATMECE
Engineering, Mysuru
 Module1 : Basics of R

1.5 Environments and Functions

1.5.1. Environments
• In R the variables that we create need to be stored in an environment.
• Environments are another type of variables.
• We can assign them, manipulate them and pass them as arguments to functions.
• They are like lists that are used to store different types of variables.
• When a variable is assigned in the command prompt, it goes by default into the global environment.
• When a function is called, an environment is automatically created to store the function-related variables.
• A new environment is created using the function new.env().

>newenvironment <-new.env()

ATME College of 25
Department of CSE-DS, ATMECE
Engineering, Mysuru
 Module1 : Basics of R

1.5 Environments and Functions

1.5.1. Environments
• We can assign variables into a newly created environment using the double square brackets or the dollar
operator as below.
• The assign function can also be used to assign variables to an environment.
• We can use get function to retrieve the values stored in environment

ATME College of Engineering, 26

Department of CSE-DS, ATMECE
Mysuru
 Module1 : Basics of R

1.5 Environments and Functions

1.5.1. Environments
The functions ls() and ls.str() take an environment argument and lists its contents.
We can test if a variable exists in an environment using the exists() function.

An environment can be converted into a list using the function as.list() and a list can be converted into an
environment using the function as.environment() or the function list2env().

ATME College of 27
Department of CSE-DS, ATMECE
Engineering, Mysuru
 Module1 : Basics of R

1.5 Environments and Functions

1.5.1. Environments
All environments are nested and so every environment has a parent environment. The empty environment sits at
the top of the hierarchy without any parent. The exists() and the get() function also looks for the variables in the
parent environment. To change this behaviour we need to pass the argument inherits = FALSE.

The word frame is used interchangeably with the word environment. The function to refer to parent environment
is denoted as parent.frame(). The variables assigned from the command prompt are stored in the global
environment. The functions and the variables from the R's base package are stored in the base environment.

ATME College of 28
Department of CSE-DS, ATMECE
Engineering, Mysuru
 Module1 : Basics of R

1.5 Environments and Functions

1.5.2. Functions
• A function and its environment together is called a closure.
• When we load a package, the functions in that package are stored in the environment on the search path
where the package is installed.
• Functions are also another data types and hence we can assign and manipulate and pass them as arguments to
other functions.
• Typing the function name in the command prompt lists the code associated with the function.
• Below is the code listed for the functions readLines() and matrix().

ATME College of 29
Department of CSE-DS, ATMECE
Engineering, Mysuru
 Module1 : Basics of R

1.5 Environments and Functions

1.5.2. Functions
• When we call a function by passing values to it, the values are called as arguments.
• The lines of code of the function can be seen between the curly braces as body of the function.
• In R, there is no explicit return statement to return values.
• The last value that is calculated in a function is returned by default in R.
To create user defined functions
It is required to just assign the function as we do for other variables.
Example

In this cube is the name of the function and x is the argument passed to this function. The content within the curly
braces is the body of the function. (Note: If it is a one line code we can omit the curly braces). Once a function is
defined, it can be called like any other function in R by passing its arguments.

ATME College of 30
Department of CSE-DS, ATMECE
Engineering, Mysuru
 Module1 : Basics of R

1.5 Environments and Functions

1.5.2. Functions
The functions formals(), args() and formalArgs() can fetch the arguments defined for a function. The body of
the function can be retrieved using the body() and deparse() functions.

ATME College of 31
Department of CSE-DS, ATMECE
Engineering, Mysuru
 Module1 : Basics of R

1.5 Environments and Functions

1.5.2. Functions
Functions can be passed as arguments to other functions and they can be returned from other functions.
For calling a function, there is another function called do.call() in which we can pass the function name and its
arguments as arguments.
The use of this function can be seen below when using the rbind() function to concatenate two data frames.

ATME College of 32
Department of CSE-DS, ATMECE
Engineering, Mysuru
 Module1 : Basics of R

1.5 Environments and Functions

1.5.3. Variable Scope
• Variable's scope is the place where we can see the variable.
• If a variable is defined within a function, the variable can be accessed from any statement in the function.
• Also the sub-functions will have access to the variables defined in the parent function.

x<-function(a1)
{
a2<-1
y<-function(a1)
{
a2/a1
}
y(a1)
}

print(x(5))

ATME College of 33
Department of CSE-DS, ATMECE
Engineering, Mysuru
 Module1 : Basics of R

1.5 Environments and Functions

1.5.3. Variable Scope
• Thus R will search for a variable in the current environment and if it could not find it, it will check the
same in its parent environment. This search will proceed upwards until the variable is searched in the
global environment. The variables defined in the global environment are called the global variables, which
can be accessed from anywhere else.
• The replicate() function can be used to run a function several times as below. In this the user defined
function random() returns 1 if the value returned by the rnorm() function is a positive value and otherwise
it returns the value of the argument passed to the function random().
• This function random() is called 20 times using the replicate() function.
random<-function(x)
{
if(rnorm(1)>0)
{ r<-1 }
else
{ r<-x }}
replicate(20,random(5))
ATME College of 34
Department of CSE-DS, ATMECE
Engineering, Mysuru
 Module1 : Basics of R

1.6 Flow Control

In Some situations it may be required to execute some code only if a condition is satisfied
1.6.1. If and Else Statement
The if statement takes a logical value and executes the next statement only if the value is TRUE
a <- 33
b <- 200

if (b > a) {
message("b is greater than a")
}

In this example we use two variables, a and b, which are used as a part of the if statement to test whether b is
greater than a. As a is 33, and b is 200, we know that 200 is greater than 33, and so we print to screen that "b is
greater than a".

ATME College of 35
Department of CSE-DS, ATMECE
Engineering, Mysuru
 Module1 : Basics of R

1.6 Flow Control

1.6.1. If and Else Statement
Else If: The else if keyword is R's way of saying "if the previous conditions were not true, then try this condition"

a <- 33
b <- 33

if (b > a) {
print("b is greater than a")
} else if (a = = b) {
print ("a and b are equal")
}

In this example a is equal to b, so the first condition is not true, but the else if condition is true, so we print to screen that "a
and b are equal".

You can use as many else if statements as you want in R.

ATME College of 36
Department of CSE-DS, ATMECE
Engineering, Mysuru
 Module1 : Basics of R

1.6 Flow Control

1.6.1. If and Else Statement
If Else: The else keyword catches anything which isn't caught by the preceding conditions:

a <- 200
b <- 33

if (b > a) {
print("b is greater than a")
} else if (a == b) {
print("a and b are equal")
} else {
print("a is greater than b")
}

In this example, a is greater than b, so the first condition is not true, also the else if condition is not true, so we go to
the else condition and print to screen that "a is greater than b".

ATME College of 37
Department of CSE-DS, ATMECE
Engineering, Mysuru
 Module1 : Basics of R

1.6 Flow Control

1.6.1. If and Else Statement

ATME College of 38
Department of CSE-DS, ATMECE
Engineering, Mysuru
 Module1 : Basics of R

1.6 Flow Control

1.6.1. If and Else Statement
Ifelse() function takes three arguments of which the first is logical condition, the second is the value that is
returned when the first vector is TRUE and third is the value that is returned when the first vector is FALSE.

ATME College of 39
Department of CSE-DS, ATMECE
Engineering, Mysuru
 Module1 : Basics of R

1.6 Flow Control

1.6.2. Switch Statement
• If there are many else statements, it looks confusing and in such cases the switch()function is required.
• The first argument of the switch statement is an expression that can return a string value or an integer.
• This is followed by several named arguments that provide the results when the name matches the value of the
first argument.
• Here also we can execute multiple statements enclosed by curly braces.
• If there is no match the switch statement returns NULL. So, in this case, it is safe to mention a default value if
none matches.

ATME College of 40
Department of CSE-DS, ATMECE
Engineering, Mysuru
 Module1 : Basics of R

1.7 Loops
There are three kinds of loops in R namely
• Repeat
• While
• For
1.7.1 Repeat Loops
The repeat is the easiest loop in R that executes the same code until it is forced to stop.
This repeat is similar to the do while statement in other languages.
A break statement can be given when it is required to break the looping.
Also it is possible to skip the rest of the statements in a loop and executes the next iteration and this is done
by using the next statement.

a<-1
repeat{
print(a)
a<-a+1
if(a==4){
break }}
ATME College of 42
Department of CSE-DS, ATMECE
Engineering, Mysuru
 Module1 : Basics of R

1.7 Loops
1.7.1 Repeat Loops
Repeat with break and next statement
Repeat with break statement
a<-0
a<-1 repeat{
repeat{ a<-a+1
print(a) if(a==4)
a<-a+1 { next
if(a==4){ }
break print(a)
} if(a==6)
} { break
}
}

ATME College of 43
Department of CSE-DS, ATMECE
Engineering, Mysuru
 Module1 : Basics of R

1.7 Loops
1.7.2 While Loops
The while loops are backward repeat loops.
The repeat loop executes the code and then checks for the condition, but in while loops the condition is first
checked and then the code is executed.
So, in this case it is possible that the code may not be executed even once when the condition fails at the
entry itself during the first iteration.
A break statement can be given when it is required to break the looping.
Also it is possible to skip the rest of the statements in a loop and executes the next iteration and this is done
by using the next statement.

ATME College of 44
Department of CSE-DS, ATMECE
Engineering, Mysuru
 Module1 : Basics of R

1.7 Loops
1.7.1 Repeat Loops
while with next statement
While without any break and next statement
a<-0
while(a<6)
{ a<-a+1
a<-0
if(a==4)
while(a<6)
{ next
{ print(a)
}
a<-a+1
print(a)
}
}
Next: With the next statement, we can skip an iteration without
terminating the loop.
When the loop passes the value 4, it will skip it and continue to
loop.
ATME College of 45
Department of CSE-DS, ATMECE
Engineering, Mysuru
 Module1 : Basics of R

1.7 Loops
1.7.2 While Loops
While with break and next statement
While with break statement

a<-0 a<-0
while(a<6){ while(1){
a<-a+1 a<-a+1
if(a==4) if(a==4)
{ break { next
} }
print(a) print(a)
} if(a==8)
{ break
Break:With the break statement, we can stop the loop even if
the while condition is TRUE
}
The loop will stop at 3 because we have chosen to finish the }
loop by using the break statement when a is equal to 4 (a == 4).
ATME College of 46
Department of CSE-DS, ATMECE
Engineering, Mysuru
 Module1 : Basics of R

1.7 Loops

1.7.3 For Loops

• The for loops are used when we know how many times the code needs to be repeated.
• The for loop accepts an iterating variable and a vector.
• It repeats the loop giving the iterating each element from the vector in turn.
• In this case also if there are multiple statements to execute, we can use the curly braces.
• The iterating variable can be an integer, number, character or logical vectors and they can be even lists.

for(i in 1:5)
{
j<-i*i
message("The square value of ",i," is ",j)
}
ATME College of 47
Department of CSE-DS, ATMECE
Engineering, Mysuru
 Module1 : Basics of R

1.7 Loops
1.7.3 For Loops
for(i in c(TRUE,FALSE,NA))
{
message("This statement is ",i)
}

a<-c(1,2,3)
b<-c("a","b","c","d")
d<-c(TRUE,FALSE)
l<-list(a,b,d)
for(i in l)
{
message("The value of list is ",i)
}

ATME College of 48
Department of CSE-DS, ATMECE
Engineering, Mysuru
 Module1 : Basics of R

Data Types in R
2.1 Basic data types in R

1. Numeric
2. Integer
3. Complex
4. Logical
5. Character

2.1.1 Numeric
• Decimal values are called numeric in R.
• It is the default computational data type.
• If we assign a decimal value to a variable x as follows, x will be of numeric type.

• If we assign an integer to a variable k, it is still being saved as numeric value.

• The fact that if k is an integer can be confirmed with the is.integer() function

ATME College of 49
Department of CSE-DS, ATMECE
Engineering, Mysuru
 Module1 : Basics of R

Data Types in R
2.1 Basic data types in R

2.1.2 Integer
In order to create an integer variable I R, the as.integer() function is involved as below

ATME College of 50
Department of CSE-DS, ATMECE
Engineering, Mysuru
 Module1 : Basics of R

Data Types in R
2.1 Basic data types in R
2.1.2 Integer
We can force a numeric value into an integer with the same as.integer() function as below.

Similarly we can parse a string for a decimal value as below

But, if a non decimal string is forced, it is an error and it returns NA.

ATME College of 51
Department of CSE-DS, ATMECE
Engineering, Mysuru
 Module1 : Basics of R

Data Types in R
2.1 Basic data types in R
2.1.2 Integer
We can force a numeric value into an integer with the same as.integer() function as below.

Similarly we can parse a string for a decimal value as below

But, if a non decimal string is forced, it is an error and it returns NA.

The integer values of the logical values TRUE and FALSE are 1 and 0 respectively.

ATME College of 52
Department of CSE-DS, ATMECE
Engineering, Mysuru
 Module1 : Basics of R

Data Types in R
2.1 Basic data types in R
2.1.3 Complex
A complex number is expressed as an imaginary value i

If we find the square root of -1, it gives an error. But if it is converted into a complex number and then square
root is applied, it produces the necessary result as another complex number.

ATME College of 53
Department of CSE-DS, ATMECE
Engineering, Mysuru
 Module1 : Basics of R

Data Types in R
2.1 Basic data types in R
2.1.4 Logical
• When two variable are compared, the logical values are created.
• The logical operators are “&”(and), “|”(or) and “!”(negation/not).

ATME College of 54
Department of CSE-DS, ATMECE
Engineering, Mysuru
 Module1 : Basics of R

Data Types in R
2.1 Basic data types in R
2.1.5 Character
The Character object is used to represent string values in R.
Objects can be converted into character values using the as.character() function.
A paste() function can be used to concatenate two character values

ATME College of 55
Department of CSE-DS, ATMECE
Engineering, Mysuru
 Module1 : Basics of R

Data Types in R
2.1 Basic data types in R
2.1.5 Character
However, a readable string can be created using the sprintf() function and this is similar to the C Language syntax.

The substr() function can be used to extract a substring from a given string.

The sub() function is used to replace the first occurrence of a string with another string as below.

ATME College of 56
Department of CSE-DS, ATMECE
Engineering, Mysuru
 Module1 : Basics of R

Data Types in R
2.2 Vectors
A sequence of data elements of the same basic type is called a Vector.
Members in a Vector are called as components or members.
The vector() function creates a vector of a specified type and length.
The result is a zero or FALSE or empty string.

The command also produces the same result as the above commands.

ATME College of 57
Department of CSE-DS, ATMECE
Engineering, Mysuru
 Module1 : Basics of R

Data Types in R
2.2 Vectors
The seq() function allows to generate sequences.
The function seq.int() also creates sequence from one number to another, but this function provides more options fo
splitting the sequence

The function seq_len() creates a sequence from 1 to the input value.

The function seq_along() creates a sequence from 1 to the length of the input.

ATME College of 58
Department of CSE-DS, ATMECE
Engineering, Mysuru
 Module1 : Basics of R

Data Types in R
2.2 Vectors
The function length() can be used to find the length of the vector, that is the number of elements in a vector.
Using this function, it is possible to assign new length to a vector.
If the vector length is extended NA(s) will be added to the end.

ATME College of 59
Department of CSE-DS, ATMECE
Engineering, Mysuru