Specification review

1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.12
1.13B
1.15 Mitosis
1.16
1.17
 2.1 slide 3
 2.2 - 3
 2.3 - 3 Where to find
 2.4 – 23
each spec
 2.5 - 81
 2.6 - 59
point
 2.7 - 55
 2.8 - 63
 2.9 - 70
 2.10 - 92
 2.11 - 108
 2.12 - 120
 2.13 - 127
 2.14 - 140
 2.15 - 150
 2.16 - 156
 2.17 - 156
• Remember that interphase
occurs BEFORE mitosis begins.
• In interphase the nuclear
membrane breaks down.
• In Prophase chromosomes
condense/supercoil and shorten
• In prophase the centrioles
move to the poles of the cell.
• In metaphase the centrioles
produce spindle fibres that
attach to the chromosomes.
• In anaphase the spindle fibres
contract and shorten, pulling
the chromosomes apart to
opposite sides of the cell.
• In telophase the nuclear
membrane reforms.
What is
this
diagram
showing?
Mitosis
 What’s inside the nucleus of a cell?

 What does it do?

 What is it responsible for?

 INTERPHASE
 A cell has 2 versions
of each chromosome
– one from each
parent.
 DNA replicates.
 Cell organelles copy.

 We call this type of

cell diploid.
 PROPHASE
 The nucleus
membrane breaks
down
 Spindle fibres
apppear
 METAPHASE
 The chromosomes
line up in the
centre/equator of
the cell.
 ANAPHASE
 Thetwo copies of
each chromosome
are pulled apart
by spindle
fibres.
 TELOPHASE
 Thechromosomes
move to different
sides of the cell.

 The cell begins to

split in two.
 CYTOKINESIS
 The cell completely
splits in two.

 There are now two

cells, these are
called daughter
cells.

 Each cell is
genetically identical
to each other, and to
the original parent
cell.
The role of mitosis
 We know that mitosis produces two
(which is more than one) cells, so what
could this be useful for?
 Growth
 Repair
Replacing cells

▶ Why do cells need to be replaced?

▶ Give an example of somewhere where cells are replaced on a regular
basis.
▶ Therefore some cells will have a higher mitotic index than others. Can
we think of cells that will have low/high mitotic indexes?
▶ When cells are replaced they will need to be clones. What is a clone?
Why is it vital that replaced cells are clones?
▶ Interphase: The DNA in the cell is replicated then microtubules form
from centromeres.
▶ 2. Prophase: The chromosomes condense and supercoil. Each
chromosome is composed of two sister chromatids, containing identical
genetic information. The chromosomes pair up so that both copies of
chromosome 1 are together, both copies of chromosome 2 are together.
▶ At the end of prophase the membrane around the nucleus in the cell
dissolves away releasing the chromosomes.
▶ 3. Metaphase: The chromosomes line up along the centre (equator) of
the cell.
▶ The centrioles are now at opposite poles of the cell with the spindle fibres
extending from them which attach to each of the sister chromatids.
▶ 4. Anaphase: The sister chromatids are then pulled apart by the mitotic
spindle which pulls one chromatid to one pole and the other chromatid to
the opposite pole.
▶ 5. Telophase: At each pole of the cell a full set of chromosomes gather
together.
▶ A membrane forms around each set of chromosomes to create two new
nuclei. The single cell then pinches in the middle to form two separate
daughter cells each containing a full set of chromosomes within a nucleus.
This process is known as cytokinesis.
▶
Replacing cells

▶ Why do cells need to be replaced? (

▶ Damaged, old and need repair, growth.

▶ Give an example of somewhere where cells are replaced on a regular

basis.
▶ When cells are replaced they will need to be clones. What is a clone?
Why is it vital that replaced cells are clones?
Tasks

▶ Page 31
Exam style question, E1, 7
Worksheets SB2a.3, 4, 5
 Another look at
mitosis
 http://www.tes.co.uk/teaching-resource/
Mitosis-Using-Division-to-Multiply-63599
47/
 Mitosis square dance

 Can you put the mini-movies into the

right order?
http://www.centreofthecell.org/interactiv
es/mitosis/index.php
Mitosis – what you need to
know
 Why mitosis occurs
 What are the steps involved in mitosis
 What occurs in each step
 What mitosis results in at the end
Where does mitosis happen?
 Most of the cells in the
body divide by mitosis.

 Can you think of any

exceptions?

 Some organisms can

reproduce by mitosis. This
is called asexual
reproduction.

 Examples include yeast and

the malaria parasite.
What happens when mitosis
goes wrong?
 Usually cells only
divide at certain
times.

 Sometimes this
control stops
working and cells
divide
uncontrollably – this
is cancer.
 What is mitosis?
 Why is mitosis important?
 What would happen if mitosis didn’t take
place?
 Suggest one advantage and one disadvantage
of asexual reproduction.
 What is meant by a diploid cell?
 What cells in the body do you think are not
diploid?
 How many parents does a cell that reproduces
by sexual reproduction have?
 How many parents does a cell that reproduces
by asexual reproduction have?
 Can you give an example of what happens
when mitosis goes wrong?
 B C
A

E
D
These photographs are taken
from prepared slides of onion
root tip cells that were
undergoing mitosis:
Identify the photograph
showing Interphase and the
photographs showing the four
stages of mitosis – Prophase,
Metaphase, Anaphase and
Telophase
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
 Recall the stages and events of mitosis
 Identification of phases of mitosis in cells
viewed with a microscope or in a micrograph
 Consider how long the cell is in each stage of
mitosis
 This cell is in B
Interphase

The chromosomes
are not visible as During this
hreads but appear stage
as chromatin the cell
granular material) prepares
n the nucleoplasm
for mitosis –
DNA
The nucleolus is replicates
clearly visible and new
organelles
are
manufacture
d

Recall the stages and events of mitosis

 This cell is in E
Prophase

Spindle fibres
are
The chromosomes beginning to
have spiralised and
condensed – they form
are shorter and close to the
thicker and visible nucleus
as clear threads and the nuclear
At this stage the membrane
hromosomes can be disintegrates
seen to have
eplicated with each
chromosome now
consisting of two
chromatids
The nucleolus has
shrunk in size

Recall the stages and events of mitosis

This cell is in A
Metaphase
Each replicated
chromosome
Spindle
fibres lines up
have independently
grown along the
across equator
the
cell of the cell
Replicated
chromosom
es
attach to
the
spindle
fibres
by their
centromere
s

Recall the stages and events of mitosis

 This cell is in D
Anaphase

The spindle
The fibres
centromeres contract and
of each
chromosome pull
replicate and the
the separated
chromatids chromatids
repel
one another to
opposite
poles of
the cell

Recall the stages and events of mitosis

 Cytokinesis (division of the
cytoplasm)
follows telophase
This cell is in C Recall the
Telophase
stages
and
A single
events of
chromatid mitosis
from each
chromosome
has
reached the
poles of
the spindle – In the plant cell
the shown in the
chromatids photograph, the
formation of a cell
are now membrane in the
described as middle of the cell
chromosomes
The chromosomes begin to uncoil and followed by cell
appear as chromatin once again; a wall on either side
of this membrane
nuclear
membrane forms around each set of
 PREPARATION OF A ROOT EXTENSION
: What
TIP SQUASH TO OBSERVE of time
percentage

STAGES OF MITOSIS does the

cell spend
in each
 Read the instructions and stage?

complete the practical.

 While you are waiting for your
incubations complete the
worksheet

Identification of phases of
mitosis in cells viewed with a
microscope or in a micrograph
stain
1. Fill a test tube with hydrochloric acid, and place it in a thermostatically controlled
water bath set at 55 °C. Leave the bottle for 15 minutes to let the acid warm to
the temperature of the water bath.
2. Place a garlic clove in the top of the bottle so that the roots are submerged in
the hydrochloric acid at 55 °C. Leave the roots in the acid for 5 minutes.
3. After 5 minutes, take the garlic out and rinse the roots thoroughly in tap water.
Use a pair of sharp scissors to cut off several root tips of 5–10 mm in length.
Put them fall into a small vial of stain (Toluidine blue).
4. Remove the test tube form the waterbath and empty the hydrochloric acid.
5. Place the test tube containing root tips in stain in the 55 °C water bath for 5
minutes to intensify the staining.
6. After 5 minutes, use forceps to take the tips out of the test tube, and place them
on a microscope slide. Add a drop of water to the root tip on the slide.
Tease the root tip apart with needles (maceration), to spread out the cells a
little. Cover with a coverslip. Replace the lid on the vial of stain and return it to
the teacher as instructed.
7. Wrap the slide in several layers of paper towel and press gently on the paper
to squash the tissues. Take care not to twist the slide as you press down or the
coverslip will break.
8. Examine under the microscope on low power to identify the area of dividing cells
or meristem (see fig A in the Student sheet). Position the cells in the centre of the
field of view. Meristem cells are small and square, have no obvious vacuoles and
are usually found in rows.
9. Move to high power (×400). Identify as many stages of the cell cycle as you can
in your field of view.
10. Count the number of cells in each of the stages of mitosis, plus interphase, in the
field of view. Record your results in a table.
11. Draw and annotate one cell from each of the stages you have identified. Your
drawings will be simple outlines of the cells and the groups of chromosomes in
them; few other structures will be visible. Aim to show the relative sizes and
positions of the chromosomes and the cell accurately. Annotate your drawings to
describe what is happening.
TASK – EXAM PRACTICE
 Complete the exam questions on mitotic
index and how to undertake the practice
SELF-ASSESSMENT
 PLENARY
 Read the article below and reflect on
how little we actually still know about
cell division
 What could be the advantages of further
studies in this area?

http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/
2014/09/140916101958.htm
Photomicrograph showing cells from an onion root tip
Note that many of the cells are in interphase
 Starter –
mitosis revision
Cut out the pictures and stick them in the
correct order in your book.
Use the key words to name each stage.
Learning
Objectives
 Revise the details of mitosis
 Explain how cancer is caused
 Review the course and effect of
smoking with the incidence of
cancers
Scanning electron micrograph of dividing cancer cells
 The multiplication of cells is a closely regulated process
Cell division is under genetic control, and it is
known that there are specific genes which code
for proteins that ‘switch on’ and ‘switch off’ the
process
ancer is a disease that results from uncontrolled cell divisions
Normal cells become transformed into cancer cells
when the genes that control cell division mutate and
Environmentalbecome ONCOGENES
cancer-causing agents, known as
carcinogens, play a part in causing the alteration
of DNA structure that leads to oncogene formation
Known carcinogens include ultraviolet radiation,
cigarette smoke and X-rays
 When a normal body cell mutates it may divide to produce a
clone of cells that form a tumour
mutation mitosis

normal mutated
body cell body cell
tumour
Many such tumours are found to be BENIGN and do not spread
from
their site of origin – they may nevertheless compress and
Malignant, cancerous damage
tumoursadjacent tissues
may spread from their site of origi
These tumours develop their own blood and lymph supply
which can transport malignant cells from the tumour to other
sites in the body
these cells invade
malignant cancer other body regions
cells carried to to form secondary
other body sites cancers
This is called
metastasis
malignant tumour secondary
tumour
Progress point
 Define
mutation, oncogene,
benign, metastasis, carcinogen
 Explainthe role of each word in
the formation of cancerous cells
and tissue

Mutagens, oncogenes and metastasis are

involved in the development of primary and
secondary tumours
What are the worlds biggest
killers?
 Explain the
difference
between
correlation and
cause
 Illustrate why the
incidence of
smoking and
cancer is a
correlation not a
cause
 http://
www.cancerresearchuk.org/
cancer-info/healthyliving/
The correlation
smoking-and-cancer/
between smoking and
smoking-and-cancer
incidence of cancers
Tasks

 Worksheets SB2a.3, SB2a.4 and SB2a.5

 Plenary
 Complete the worksheet to summarise
mitosis in cells
 Review your understanding against the
specification
Starter –
percentil
e curves

 What does this

graph tell you?
Growth charts

 Growth charts show how, in relation to the

population in general, an individual sits. Where
they sit will be given as a percentile. Eg: if you are
in the 75 percentile, then you are on average
larger than 75% of the population.
 A growth curve is, as stated, a curve. But that
does not reflect actual growth which does not
occur at a uniform rate, so growth curves are used
to see where a baby is in relation as it develops.
Tasks

 Page 32-33
 Questions 3 and 4
 Worksheets Sb2b.3
Cell differentiation
 Cell differentiation
 Cell differentiation refers to the process by which cells become
specialized and acquire specific structures and functions. In
multicellular organisms, cells start off as undifferentiated, or stem
cells, with the potential to develop into different types of cells.
During the process of differentiation, cells turn genes off or on
depending on if the cell type will ultimately need them, leading to
the development of distinct cell types with specific roles and
characteristics.
 Cell differentiation is crucial for the development and maintenance
of complex organisms. It allows cells to perform specific functions
in different tissues and organs. For example, in the human body,
there are various types of cells such as muscle cells, nerve cells,
blood cells, and skin cells, each with unique structures and
functions.
 The process of cell differentiation is regulated by various factors,
including specific genes and signaling molecules. These factors
influence gene expression patterns, leading to the activation or
repression of certain genes, which ultimately determine the cell's
fate and specialization.
 Cell differentiation is a fundamental process in embryonic
development, where cells gradually differentiate into different germ
layers and give rise to various tissues and organs. However,
differentiation can also occur in adult organisms during tissue
repair and regeneration processes.
Classic specialised cells
The big picture: “What
is stem cell research?”
Learning outcomes:-
Describe how stem cells can
differentiate into other kinds of
cells
Analyse how Stem cell research can
lead to therapies to treat many
diseases
Evaluate the ethical issues
surrounding stem cells
Cell differentiation
 Before a cell has differentiated, or specialised, it is
called a stem cell
 A definition:

A stem cell is a cell that has not yet become a

specialised cell

Other features:
 Can replicate many times
 Has the potential to become different types of cell
Describe how stem cells can differentiate into other kinds of cells
 Types of stem cells

Adult stem cells

We have stem cells in our body e.g.
In bone marrow

Embryonic stem cells

These come from a developing
embryo- usually one which has
been discarded after IVF.
 Once a cell has differentiated/specialised it can
now only replicate and produce further cells of
that type. These cells are called pluripotent.
 Embryonic cells, that can differentiate into ANY
kind of cell are called totipotent.
 “Some people think it is unethical”
 “There is the potential to harm/destroy an
embryo”
 Something else to consider is that the side effects
of stem cells are unknown.
 Because of their high mitotic index, stem cells
might also have a link to increased incidence of
cancer.
Questions

 Page 33 question 5 and 6.

 S1
 E1

 Page 37 question 5, E1, 6

 Worksheets Sb2d.2 and Sb2d.3

Harkness

 What is it?
 Why might it be of value in this topic?
 “The potential benefits of
stem cell use in medicine
far outweigh the risks”
 Come to a Harkness lesson pre-prepared with prior knowledge of the topic
 Bring materials (texts and notes) to support your discussion
 Make meaningful, articulate contributions
 Invite others’ views through questioning
 Make eye contact
 Refer to other students by name when responding
 Add to others’ points to develop the discussion
 Make connections or links between ideas
 Challenge received ideas or points made by others
 Listen with respect to each other and build a conversation
 Try not to talk over another person
 Don’t talk too little
 Don’t talk too much
 Do not shout
 Don’t simply wait for your turn to make a pre-prepared point – listen and develop
points
 “What are the potential uses of
stem cells and the associated
controversy surrounding their
use”
In your group come up with an answer to the question
above, it should include examples for both sides of the
argument.
 “Do the potential benefits
of stem cell use in medicine
far outweigh the risks”
In your group come up with an answer to the question
above, it should include examples of treatment and
their potential uses.
Task: Produce a fact sheet
detailing structure, location and How do we
potential, and ethical issues obtain stem
surrounding the use, of stem cells from
cells.
embryos?
Use this success criteria for
information to include Where are
Which type of stem cells
Describe how stem cell is found in a
stem cells most useful human
have the and why? body?
potential to Name the
treat sick two types
people Stem cells of stem
cells
Name
conditions that Explain the arguments
can be treated for and against using
with stem cells stem cells from
1. embryo stem cells – examples of
pros
• can treat a wide variety / lots of diseases / problems
Self
•
•
many available / plentiful
using them better than wasting them assessment
• painless
cons
• (possible) harm / death to embryo
• (relatively) untested / unreliable / may not work
 allow long term effects not known or may be more risky
• embryo can’t be ‘asked’ / ‘embryo rights’ idea

adult bone marrow stem cells – examples of

pros
• no ethical issues (in collection) or permission given
• quick recovery
• (relatively) safe allow does not kill (donor) / low risk
• well tried / tested / know they work
cons
• operation hazards e.g. infection
• few types of cell / tissue produced or few diseases / problems treated
• painful so may deter donors max 4

Conclusion to evaluation: A reasoned conclusion from the evidence max 1

2. any two from:

• (stem cells) are unspecialised / undifferentiated allow description eg ‘no particular
job’
• are able to become differentiated or can form other types of cell / tissue / organ
Stem cell assessed task

 Video – ‘conversations, ethics, science and stem

cells’ – 10 minutes www.eurostemcell.org/films
 Character card view points discussion – 10
minutes
Stem cell assessed task

 Video – ‘conversations, ethics, science and stem cells’ – 10 minutes

www.eurostemcell.org/films
 Character card view points discussion – 10 minutes

Part B: More things to think about

When does an embryo become a person? What does this mean for
research? Different countries around the world have different laws about
how embryos must be treated. In the UK:

 • Embryos up to 14 days old can be used in research. At 14 days

old, the embryo starts to develop a nervous system.
 • Abortion is allowed until 24 weeks into pregnancy. After 24
weeks, a foetus has developed that can begin to respond to light and
sound.

 Do you agree with the UK’s laws? Why / why not?

Stem cell assessed task

 Video – ‘conversations, ethics, science and stem cells’ – 10 minutes

www.eurostemcell.org/films
 Character card view points discussion – 10 minutes

Part B: More things to think about

When does an embryo become a person? What does this mean for research?
Different countries around the world have different laws about how embryos must
be treated. In the UK:

 • Embryos up to 14 days old can be used in research. At 14 days old,

the embryo starts to develop a nervous system.
 • Abortion is allowed until 24 weeks into pregnancy. After 24 weeks, a
foetus has developed that can begin to respond to light and sound.

 Do you agree with the UK’s laws? Why / why not?

 Hannah task
Growth in plant cells
Plant growth

 Plant growth has to occur at the (apical) tips of

the roots/shoots.
 Humans have stem cells whereas plants have
meristems.
 Meristem cells divide rapidly through mitosis, they
then ELONGATE and then DIFFERENTIATE.
Plant specialised cells
Measuring plant growth
Tasks

 Page 35 question 5, 8, ESQ (blue box at the

bottom
 Worksheets SB2c.3, SB2c.4 and SB2c.5
 The Brain
Are all areas
equal?
Learning Objectives
 Describe the different structures of the brain
and explain what their functions are
 Illustratehow CT scans and PET scanning can
help us investigate brain function
 Deduce the limitations of treating damage to
the brain
The Brain Describe the different structures of the
brain and explain what their functions
are

 Complete the worksheet on the brain – what

does it look like and what does each part
do?
Cerebral cortex

 Makes up 80% of the brain, controls senses, language, memory,

behaviour and consciousness.
 Divided in half, called hemispheres, the left side of the brain controls
the right side of the body and vice versa.
 Starter
Phineas Gage – how did he survive and be able to walk
and talk? Why did he become lazy and bad-tempered?
Cerebellum
 At the base of the brain,
controls balance and
posture, controls fine
muscular control
ensuring smooth
movements.

Medulla oblongata
 Controls heart rate and
breathing rate.
 Responsible for reflexes such
as vomiting, sneezing and
swallowing.
 Connects the brain to the
spinal cord
Questions
Brain Dissection!
 Wear gloves and an apron
 Look at your brain as a whole – you
should be able to identify the brain
stem, cerebellum, pons, left and
right hemispheres
 Take a picture showing all these
structures
 Once you have identified all of these
and taken a picture to print and
label in your book then you can
chop through the brain to see the
texture throughout and see if you
can identify any of the different
areas of brain function
 Illustrate how CT
Deduce the
scans and PET
limitations of
CT and PET Scans scanning can help
us investigate brain
treating damage to
the brain
function
 Research what your type of scan is
 How does it work?
 How can it help diagnose issues within the
brain?
 How does it help us to understand about brain
function?
 Prepare a presentation on your findings
Tasks

 Page 39 question E1, ESQ, 6

Learning Objectives
 Explain how spinal cord and brain damage can
affect a persons everyday living and the problems
associated with their treatment
 Discover the use of medical imaging (CT and PET
scans) in determining problems with the brain and
spinal cord
 Evaluatethe different types of imaging as a
medical diagnostic tool to investigate brain
function
Brain Damage vs Spinal Cord
Damage
 What is a brain tumour?
 What consequences could it have?
 What is spinal cord damage?
 What consequences could it have?
 Is it possible to treat either condition?
Brain damage

 Is often a widely used and fairly vague term, as the effects of the
damage will depend on which part of the brain is affected.
CT scans

 CT scans involve x-rays being directed at the brain to see how they
are absorbed, this will develop an image of the brain that represents
if there is any additional tissue (tumours) or lack of tissue (brain
damage).
 These can easily been seen on the image as a normal, healthy brain
should be uniform in appearance.
A CT or CAT Scan
Left: Arrows indicate a collection of blood between the skull and the outer
covering of the brain (epidural hematoma) that's compressing the frontal
lobe.

Right: Contrast material injected into a vein during this CT scan of the head
highlights tumors in both sides of the brain.
Brain tumours

 A cancer/tumour is a mass of rapidly dividing cells.

 If this occurs in the brain it will squash/press against neighbouring
cells and affect how they work. This will be reflected in a change of
actions/abilities/reactions which will indicate where in the brain the
tumour may be.
 Tumours can be killed by using radiotherapy (high energy x-rays) or
chemotherapy (drugs that kill dividing cells).
 The blood–brain barrier (BBB) is a highly selective semipermeable
border that separates the circulating blood from the brain and
extracellular fluid in the central nervous system (CNS). This may
reduce the effectiveness of chemotherapy
PET scan

 Shows levels of activity in the brain.

 The patient is injected with radioactive glucose. If cells are active
(doing more respiration and therefore requiring more glucose) they
will appear brighter on the scan and vice versa as they will be doing
less respiration and requiring less glucose.

 Patients are shown images/stimulus material and the activity is

mapped.
A PET Scan
 fMRI Scans
In scan 1, a subject is asked to remember a
face. Areas at the rear of the brain that process
visual information are active during this task,
as is an area in the frontal lobe.

In scan 2, the subject is asked to "think about

this face." Surprisingly, the hippocampus is
activated - the first time this has been
documented. The hippocampus was already
known to be important for memory, but these
results show that this part of the brain is
specifically active during the time when we are
remembering new information.

In scans 3 and 4, the subject was asked to

compare another face to the remembered
face. Some of the same visual areas are
activated as during the initial memory task,
but other areas, such as part of the frontal
lobe, are involved in making a decision about
Correlation or Causation? the memory.
 Further brain questions – time to see
a specialist (you might need to look
up some of these areas specifically)
1. A patient comes in with difficulty speaking and forming coherent sentences.
They are aware of what they want to say but can't seem to get the words
out. Which part of their brain might be damaged?

2. A patient comes in with difficulty balancing and coordinating their

movements. They often stumble and fall, even on flat surfaces. Which part
of their brain might be damaged?

3. A patient comes in with difficulty seeing objects in their right visual field.
They are aware of objects on their left but have trouble perceiving anything
on their right. Which part of their brain might be damaged?

4. A patient comes in with difficulty recognizing faces, even of people they

know well. They can still recognize objects and read text without issue.
Which part of their brain might be damaged?

5. A patient comes in with difficulty understanding and interpreting spoken

language. They can still produce speech and hear sounds, but have trouble
making sense of what is being said to them. Which part of their brain might
be damaged?
 Further brain questions – time to see
a specialist (you might need to look
up some of these areas specifically)
1. A patient comes in with difficulty speaking and forming coherent sentences. They are
aware of what they want to say but can't seem to get the words out. Which part of their
brain might be damaged?
Answer: The patient might have damage to their Broca's area, which is responsible for
speech production and language processing.
2. A patient comes in with difficulty balancing and coordinating their movements. They often
stumble and fall, even on flat surfaces. Which part of their brain might be damaged?
Answer: The patient might have damage to their cerebellum, which is responsible for
movement coordination, balance, and muscle tone.
3. A patient comes in with difficulty seeing objects in their right visual field. They are aware
of objects on their left but have trouble perceiving anything on their right. Which part of
their brain might be damaged?
Answer: The patient might have damage to their left parietal lobe, which is responsible for
processing sensory information from the right side of the body.
4. A patient comes in with difficulty recognizing faces, even of people they know well. They
can still recognize objects and read text without issue. Which part of their brain might be
damaged?
Answer: The patient might have damage to their fusiform gyrus, which is responsible for
facial recognition and processing visual stimuli related to faces.
5. A patient comes in with difficulty understanding and interpreting spoken language. They
can still produce speech and hear sounds, but have trouble making sense of what is being
said to them. Which part of their brain might be damaged?
Answer: The patient might have damage to their Wernicke's area, which is responsible for
language comprehension and interpretation.
 YOU DO NOT NEED TO KNOW THESE SPECIFIC REGIONS FOR THE EXAM
Limitations in treating brain
conditions

 A question that often comes up is about treating conditions

associated with the brain. Firstly, DO NOT say that it is difficult, as
you are not a brain surgeon and are not qualified to say this. But you
can say:
 Certain drugs cannot cross the blood brain barrier which means it is
hard to get them to the affected areas.
 The brain is difficult to access because it is protected/surrounded by
the skull.
 Treating/operating on the brain is hard because surrounding tissue
could be affected.
Types of Scans
 Discover the use of medical
CAT or CT imaging (CT and PET scans)
 PET in determining problems
with the brain and spinal
 fMRI cord

 In groups you will research one of the types of scan.

 Prepare a 3 min max presentation on your type of
scan include how it works and what diagnosis it can
give for brain or spinal injury
 Advantages/Disadvantages of the different imaging techniques
Type of scan Advantages Disadvantages

X RAYS

COMPUTERISED
TOMOGRAPHY
(CT scans)

MAGNETIC
RESONANCE
IMAGING (MRI)

FUNCTIONAL
MAGNETIC
RESONANCE
IMAGING (fMRI)
 Advantages/Disadvantages of the different imaging techniques
Type of scan Advantages Disadvantages
Good at imaging hard Poor at imaging soft
X RAYS tissues (bones teeth tissues (brain etc)
etc) Harmful rays,
(mutagenic, carcinogenic
etc)
Historical
COMPUTERISE Can identify soft Lacks detail
structures (brain eg Historical (live images
D tumours , bleeding showing brain function
TOMOGRAPHY etc) not possible)
(CT scans)
MAGNETIC Very detailed images Historical , do not show
(diagnose brain the brain as it works.
RESONANCE injuries, strokes,
IMAGING tumours and
(MRI) infections).

FUNCTIONAL Can see the brain in Must be still inside and

action as people carry MRI machine.
MAGNETIC out different tasks Increased blood flow
RESONANCE could be correlation not
IMAGING causation.
(fMRI)
Tasks

 Pages 40-41 questions 8, 7, 3 and 5

 Worksheets SB2f.2, SB2f.3, SB2f.4, SB2f.5
 The big picture: “What is the role
of the central nervous system?

Learning outcomes:
4 To describe what the nervous system
is.
6 To analyse how a neurone cell is
adapted to its job.
8 To compare the different senses in
the body.
 What is the nervous
system?
The Nervous System is split into
the Central Nervous System
(CNS) and the Peripheral
Nervous System (PNS).

The CNS is the brain and spinal

cord.

The PNS transmits electrical

impulses to and from the CNS.
 Video
Watch the video… be ready to answer
questions afterwards

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uai
ACDqqZhA

LO: To describe what the nervous system is.

 What is the nervous
system?
Answer these questions in full sentences in your
book.
1. What does the Central Nervous System consist of?

The central nervous system consists of the brain

and spinal cord.
2. What role does the Peripheral Nervous System
have?

The peripheral nervous system transmits electrical

impulses to and from the central nervous system.
Extra challenge: Why do we need a nervous system?
 Task
4 Draw and Label a diagram of a motor
neurone

6 Explain the role (job) of the motor neurone.

8 How is the motor neurone adapted for its

job?

9 Why do these adaptation allow for it to do

its job more efficiently?
LO: To analyse how a neurone cell is adapted to its
job.
 Compare and
Motor Neurone contrast sensory
and relay neurons

Dendrite Cell
Cytoplas Nucleu Nerve
Axon Membran
m s Ending
e

Dendrite

Nucleu
s
Nerve
Axon Ending

Cytoplas Cell
m Membran
e
How does your nervous system
work?
The way that your nervous system works can be
summed up as:

Stimulus

Task:
Use the Receptor Keywords:
nervous Pain
system
process (right) Sensory neurone Contract
to describe
how a person Muscle
responds to Coordinator (CNS)
putting their Electrical
hand on a pin impulse
(stimulus) Motor neurone

Effector
On a sensory neurone the AXON is AFTER the cell
body and the DENDRON is BEFORE the cell body
 Task page 43
• Questions 3, 4, 6, 7
• SB2g.4 and SB2g.5
Copy the diagram below
of a reflex arc into your
book.

Label:
• a sensory neurone
• a motor neurone
• an intermediate (relay)
neurone
• an axon
• a synapse
• the spinal cord
• a sense organ/receptor
• and an effector muscle

Put arrows on the

neurones to show the
direction of the impulses.
 Task
• Complete the worksheet showing different
responses to different stimulus

• Write a flow chart of how an impulse is carried

from the stimulus to the effector – you should
state whether it is an electrical or chemical
message at each stage
 3. Involves relay neurone 4. Involves impulses 5. Happens quickly
2. Used for in spinal cord
self
protection

6. Happens slowly
r y Re
ta fle
n x
12. Uses sensory

l u
Vo
and motor
neurones

7. Involves conscious thought

11. Majority of
things we do

1. Uses 9. Touch a red

10. Passes via the brain receptors and hot surface 8. Picking up a drink
effectors
 Synapses

• http://highered.mheducation.com/sites/0072495855/student_view0/
chapter14/animation__transmission_across_a_synapse.html
 Synapses
1. Impulse reaches end of the neurone
2. Neurotransmitter is released into the synapse
3. Neurotransmitter diffuses across the synapse
4. Neurotransmitter stimulates the receptors on
the post synaptic membrane
5. Impulse is regenerated and carries on down
the post synaptic neurone.
 Plenary:
Discuss a suitable definition for each of
the following key terms.

Receptors:
Effectors:
Peripheral nervous system:
Central nervous system:
Synapse:
 Tasks
• Page 47 questions
• Worksheets SB2i.3, 4, 5
The Eye
Anatomy
and
Functions
 Lesson Objectives
 Label a diagram of the eye
 Illustrate the different parts of
the eye on a real organ
 Deduce how the lens works
through the dissection
The structure of the
human eye

Label the Diagram

Radial and circular
muscles
Eye Dissection
What do we find in the
retina?
 The retina contains 2 kinds of cell, rod cells and
cone cells.

 Cone cells help us detect light of different colours.

 Rod cells help us detect light at low frequency/low
levels ie: when it is dark.
 What is the
consequence to eye
sight in these pictures?
Learning Objectives
 Determine what the consequences of
different shaped eyes on vision
 Illustrate
how these issues can be
corrected
 Predict
what issues different people will
have with their eye sight
Eye problems – based on the symptoms
presented by the patient, which part of
the eye have they injured?

1. A patient comes in with blurred vision and difficulty seeing distant

objects clearly. Which part of their eye might be damaged?
2. A patient comes in with difficulty seeing in dim light or at night.
Which part of their eye might be damaged?

3. A patient comes in with difficulty seeing colors, and everything

appears gray. Which part of their eye might be damaged?

4. A patient comes in with a blind spot in their visual field. Which part of
their eye might be damaged?

5. A patient comes in with distorted vision, seeing straight lines as wavy

or bent. Which part of their eye might be damaged? (you might need
to look this one up – this condition has a special name).
 Eye problems – based on the symptoms
presented by the patient, which part of
the eye have they injured?

1. A patient comes in with blurred vision and difficulty seeing distant objects
clearly. Which part of their eye might be damaged?
Answer: The patient might have damage to their cornea or lens, which refract
incoming light and help focus it onto the retina.
2. A patient comes in with difficulty seeing in dim light or at night. Which part of
their eye might be damaged?
Answer: The patient might have damage to their rods, which are responsible
for detecting light and allowing us to see in low light conditions.
3. A patient comes in with difficulty seeing colors, and everything appears gray.
Which part of their eye might be damaged?
Answer: The patient might have damage to their cones, which are responsible
for detecting color and are concentrated in the macula of the retina.
4. A patient comes in with a blind spot in their visual field. Which part of their eye
might be damaged?
Answer: The patient might have damage to their optic nerve or retina,
specifically the area where the optic nerve connects to the retina, known as
the optic disc.
5. A patient comes in with distorted vision, seeing straight lines as wavy or bent.
Which part of their eye might be damaged?
Answer: The patient might have damage to their macula, specifically a
condition called macular degeneration, which affects the central portion of the
retina and can cause distorted or blurred vision. YOU DO NOT NEED TO KNOW
THIS FOR THE EXAM
What does this show?
Cataracts

 Caused by a build up of protein in the LENS.

 Lens/eye appears cloudy.

 The protein build up causes the light to be dispersed which means

it’s like looking through a cloud/smoke.

 Can be fixed with surgery to replace the lens with a glass/plastic one.
Correcting Eye Sight
Illustrate how these
issues can be
What is it
corrected about the
eye which
causes
these
issues?

What lens needs

to be put into
place to correct
the eye sight?
Plenary
 Cut out the statements and put them under the correct
headings
 Review your understanding of the specification points
Tasks

 Page 44-45 questions 3, 5, E1, S1

 Worksheets SB2h.3, 4, 5
Questions

 Eye and CNS – questions 1, 4, 6, 8

 Cell cycle and growth – 2, 5, 7