Ch. 1 Lecture

HHP 264 Introduction
• What is statistics?
• Importance
• Why do we need it?
• How do we use it?
No Pressure!
• First time teaching the course, I would like to see what
statistical knowledge you have ENTERING the course
• NOT WORTH A GRADE!!!
• In-Class brief baseline assessment
Excel
• Importance of using statistical software
• What it can be used for
• How to use it or where to learn from
• In class activity – gathering data and putting it into excel
CHAPTER 1
Measurement,
Statistics, and
Research
Key Terms
• Kinesiology—the study of the art and science of human
movement
• Measurement—the process of comparing a value to a
standard
• Distance (e.g., height, long jump distance)
• Force (e.g., body weight, isometric strength)
• Time (e.g., number of seconds to complete 100-m swim)
• Frequency (e.g., heart rate in beats per minute, bike pedal rate in
revolutions per minute)
• Data—the result of measurement
(continued)
Key Terms (continued)
• Statistics—a mathematical technique by which data are

organized, treated, and presented for interpretation and
evaluation
• Reliability—reproducibility and consistency
• Validity—the soundness or the appropriateness of the test
in measuring what it is designed to measure
• Often a correlation from one test to another test
• Example—6-minute walk test for VO2max estimation
Variables and Constants
• Variable—a characteristic of a person, place, or object that
can assume more than one value
• Anything that is free to vary
• An individual’s body weight
• Constant—a characteristic that can assume only one value
• Distance in 100 m dash
• pi (π)
• e (base of the natural logarithm)
• Avogadro’s number
Types of Variables
• Continuous variable
• Theoretically can assume any value
• Examples: distance, force, time
• Value assumed only limited by precision of measurement
instrument
• Discrete variable
• Limited to certain numbers, usually whole numbers
• Examples: number of children, diagnoses (+ or −), dead or alive
Classification of Data
(No Oil In Rivers)
• Nominal—mutually exclusive categories

• Assigned number does not indicate amount of something
• Examples—sex, political party
• Ordinal—gives quantitative order to the variables, but does
not indicate how much better one score is than another
• Often rank order scales
• Examples—pain scales (0-10), Borg Rating of Perceived Exertion
Scale (6-20)
(continued)
Classification of Data (continued)
• Interval—has equal units, or intervals, of measurement—

that is, the same distance between each division of the
scale—but has no absolute zero point (zero is arbitrary)
• F and C temperature scales
• Joint angles
• Ratio—based on order, has equal distance between scale
points, and uses zero to represent the absence of value
• Kelvin temperature scale, force (N)
• Subject A’s mass = 50 kg, subject B’s mass = 100 kg; B is twice as
massive as A
Research Design and Statistical Analysis
• Research
• A special technique for solving problems
• A systematic investigation, including research development, testing and
evaluation, designed to develop or contribute to generalizable knowledge
• Historical research
(continued)
Research Design and Statistical Analysis (continued)
• Observational research—describing events or conditions,

which the researcher does not actively manipulate
• Examine correlations between variables
• Weak cause–effect inferences
• Experimental research—research process that involves
manipulating and controlling events or variables to solve a
problem
• Stronger cause–effect inferences than observational research
• Requires planning to understand how manipulation and controls
need to be handled
Hypothesis Testing
• Hypothesis—an educated guess or logical assumption that
is based on prior research or known facts and that can be
tested
• Research hypothesis—the hypothesis that prompts the
research
• Also referred to as the alternate hypothesis
• H1 (or HA)
• Usually predicts relationships or differences between or among
groups
(continued)
Hypothesis Testing (continued)
• Null hypothesis
• Predicts no relationship or no difference between the groups
• H0
• Statistically, the tenability of H0 is tested
• H0 and H1 are set up to be mutually exclusive
• If H0 is true, the H1 is false, and vice versa
• p = .01 → if H0 is true, the probability that the results

could have occurred by random chance is 1 in 100
• p = .10 → 10 in 100, or 1 in 10, or 10%
• p = .05 → 5 in 100, or 1 in 20, or 5%
• p = .001 → 1 in 1000, or 0.1%
(continued)
• We reject H0 and accept H1 when differences or

relationships between variables are established beyond a
reasonable doubt.
• Level of confidence (LOC) is the value we set that defines
our reasonable doubt.
• May set level of confidence at 5%; then reject H0 when p ≤ .05
• If set level of confidence at 1%, then reject H0 when p ≤ .01
Independent and Dependent Variables
• Experimental study
• Independent variable (IV)—variable that is manipulated or
controlled by the researcher
• Dependent variable (DV)—variable that is measured
• Example—effect of creatine supplementation on anaerobic power
• IV: creatine supplementation (two levels: creatine group, placebo)
• DV: peak power from Wingate anaerobic power test
• Observational studies
• IV—predictor variable (IV is not controlled, only measured)
• DV—criterion variable
(continued)
Relationship of Skill to Practice
Internal and External Validity
• Internal validity—a measure of the control within the experiment to
ascertain that the results are due to the treatment that was applied
• An assessment of the quality of the experimental control
• Common techniques used: control/placebo conditions, randomization,
blinding
• Intervening (extraneous) variables—fatigue or learning effects
from repeated testing
• Instrument error—poor calibration or loss of calibration
(continued)
Internal and External Validity (continued)
• Investigator error—error in skinfold technique, data entry

errors
• External validity—the ability to generalize the results of the
experiment to the population from which the samples were
drawn
• How well does the sample reflect population of interest?
• Are results from a sample of physically active college students
generalizable to professional athletes?
• Tight experimental control may make study unrealistic in real
world.
Statistical Inference
• Population—any group of persons, places, or objects that
have at least one common characteristic
• Can be any group as long as criteria for inclusion in the
group are defined so that it is clear who qualifies as a
member
(continued)
Statistical Inference (continued)
• Sample—a subset of a population

• Need samples that are representative of the population of interest
• All else being equal, larger samples will more likely reflect the
population characteristics
• Random sample—each member of the population has an equal
opportunity of being selected into the sample
• Stratified sample—break population into subcategories, then
sample from each stratum
• Bias—extraneous factors operate on the sample to make it
unrepresentative of the population
Parameters and Statistics
• Parameter—a characteristic of the population
• Statistics—a characteristic of a sample that is used to
estimate the value of the population parameter
• Sampling error example:
• Average body fat percentage of all undergraduate males at KU is
21%
• If a random sample of undergraduate males at KU is collected and
average is 18% fat
• Sampling error = 3% fat
Probability and Hypothesis Testing
• What is the average height of 15-year-old females in a city?
• Example: sample 200 subjects, height = 158 cm with error factor of
± 5 cm at a 95% level of confidence (5% probability of error)
• Confidence interval approach at 95% level of confidence: 95%
confident that the population height is between 153 cm and 163 cm
• We could also hypothesize that average height = 160 cm.
• From above, we are 95% confident that the true population height
lies somewhere between 153 and 163 cm.
• Our hypothesized value of 160 cm is consistent with our data
(hypothesized value lies within 95% confidence interval).
• What if we hypothesized a value of 165 cm?
Theories and Hypotheses
• Theory—a belief regarding a concept or a series of related
concepts
• Generate hypotheses that can be tested
• If hypotheses survive testing, more confidence in the theory
• Examples: gravity, evolution, sliding filament theory of muscle
contraction
• Hypotheses
• Must be testable
• Must be falsifiable

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HHP 264 Introduction

• Statistics—a mathematical technique by which data are

• Nominal—mutually exclusive categories

• Interval—has equal units, or intervals, of measurement—

• Observational research—describing events or conditions,

• p = .01 → if H0 is true, the probability that the results

• We reject H0 and accept H1 when differences or

• Investigator error—error in skinfold technique, data entry

• Sample—a subset of a population

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