2- Natural Hazards (Geo-hazard)

Internal Structure and Composition of the Earth

 Earth is differentiated planet according density, layered like an
onion.
 Aside from the limited depth data, we have no direct knowledge
about the nature of the Earth’s interior.
 How do we determine the structure and composition of earth’s
interior?
 Volcanic eruptions: provide small sample of material that comes
from greater depth possibly as much as 200km.
example: 1. the mantle xenoliths show us that the uppermost mantle
is made of a rock called peridotite
 Tectonic An ophiolite is a section of oceanic crust that has been
come to continental crust by uplifted
 physical properties of planets itself, density, the way it transmit
seismic waves, etc.
• The velocity-depth curves show that P-waves passing beneath the
continents, to a depth of about 35 km, travel at speeds of between
about 4 and 6.5km/s. however, deeper than 35km the speed jumps
abruptly to 8 km/s.
• This indicate that below all the continental regions of the Earth,
there is defined boundary between the crust and the mantle which
called the Mohorovicic discontinuity, or simply the Moho.
• It implies that the crust and mantle are made from different kinds of
rock.
• The depth to the Moho beneath the continents is 35 km and 70 km
under mountain (continental-continental collision).
• As seismic P-waves travel more deeply into the mantle, their speed
increases from 8km/s (Moho) to 13 km/s at a depth of 2900 km.
• However, VP suddenly drops from 13 km/s back down to about 8
km/s.
• This dramatic reduction in speed at 2900 km defines the boundary
between the Earth’s mantle and core.
Mantle
 The interior of the earth is recognized according to the composition
as:
1. Crust: outer layer extended from solid surface down to the first
major discontinuity (Mohorovicic discontinuities)
• Made up of light materials (silicate rocks)
• The density ranges from 2.7(continental) to 3.2 (oceanic crust)
• It is of two types: continental and oceanic crust

A .Continental crust: B. Oceanic Crust:

• thick as much as 70km • is thinner about 8km
• composed of light weight rocks • is dark dense volcanic rocks
• the oldest rock of the crust • younger and relatively
• average density is 2.7 gm/cm3 undeformed
• average density is 3g/cm3
2. Mantle:
• covers the core, constitute 82% by volume and 68% by mass
of earth
• it is composed of magnesium and iron silicate
• it extends from 50km to 2900km into the inner earth
• density ranges from 3.4 to 5.5mg/cm3
3. Core:
• The central mass extended from 2900km up to the center
• Mostly made up of iron with some nickel
• Average density is 10.79gm/cm3
• Constitute 16% by volume and 32% by mass of earth
Seismic Waves
• Seismic waves are waves of energy that travel through the Earth's
layers.
• seismographs recorded the seismic waves that travelled all around
the Earth.
• Seismic waves rattled (shaking) the Earth for days. This
occurrence is known as the free oscillation of the Earth.
• A seismograph is an instrument that records seismic waves
(vibrations) onto a tracing called a seismogram.
Types of Seismic Waves
Body waves
 Surface waves
• P – waves • Rayleigh – waves
• S – waves • Love – waves
Surface Wave
• Surface waves are also divided into two types, Love waves and
Rayleigh waves.
• Love waves produce motion that is perpendicular to the
direction of wave travel in a horizontal orientation only. This is
the type of horizontal shearing that wipes out building
foundations.
• Rayleigh waves produce a rolling motion like the waves on the
sea. An object like a building on the surface will experience
both an up-and-down, bobbing motion transverse to and a back-
and-forth motion parallel to, the Rayleigh wave direction of
travel.
• Love and Rayleigh surface waves are responsible for a lot of
damage that takes place during earthquakes.
• They are not as basic as P and S waves, but create a lot of
problems anyway.
 Rayleigh Waves

Particle motion consists of elliptical motions in the vertical plane and

parallel to the direction of propagation. Amplitude decreases with depth.
Material returns to its original shape after wave passes.
 Love Waves

Particle motion consists of alternating transverse motions. Particle motion

is horizontal and perpendicular to the direction of propagation (transverse).
Amplitude decreases with depth. Material returns to its original shape after
wave passes.
2. Body Wave
• Body waves travel through the interior of the Earth, while surface
waves travel only within the top surface layers.
• Most earthquakes take place at depths of less than 80km below the
Earth’s surface.
• P-waves bunch together and then spread apart when they move
also called longitudinal compressional waves.
• P waves are the fastest seismic waves and the first to arrive at any
monitoring station.
• P waves can travel through solid, liquid, and gaseous materials.
• S waves like when you snap a rope. The oscillations are in a
waveform.
• They cause a shearing, side-to-side motion transverse
(perpendicular) to their direction of travel. Because of this, they can
only travel through a substance like rock that has shear strength.
• S waves cannot travel Liquids and gases due to no shear strength
 P-
waves

P-waves travel fastest. They

consist of successive contractions
and expansions, just like sound
waves in air.
 S-waves

S-waves are slower than P-waves. The particle motion

is at right angles to the direction of travel. S-waves
cannot travel through air or liquids.
What is a Seismograph
• The Modern Seismograph
• Seismic waves cause the seismograph’s drum to vibrate. But
the suspended weight with the pen attached moves very little.
Therefore, the pen stays in place and records the drum’s
vibrations.
Seismograms

A seismogram is a record of the seismic waves from an earthquake, created

by a seismograph or seismometer (the measuring instrument).
Simulation of earthquake shaking of a building :

SeismicBuilding-Narrated480.mov
EARTHQUAKE HAZARD
• What is an earthquake?
• What causes an earthquake?
• Types & propagation of seismic waves
• Parameters for earthquake resistant building
• Size of earthquakes
• Where do earthquakes occur?
• Ethiopian earthquakes
Origin and Distribution of Earth quake and Tsunami
• What is earth quake?
• Earthquakes are vibrations of the ground that occur when
stored energy is suddenly released causing rocks to shift along
pre-existing faults or fractures creating a new fault.
• An earthquake is a sudden motion or shaking of the Earth.
• This movement causes seismic waves to move along the
surface of the Earth and move through the Earth.
• The energy stored is released and spread in all direction in the
form of elastic waves called seismic waves.
• There are many types of these waves but the major ones are:
» body wave and
» surface wave
 What causes earthquakes
Earthquakes are primarily caused by:
1. Natural causes
2. Artificial causes
3. Other causes
1. Natural causes
a. Volcanic
• movement of magma 3. Other causes
• Volcanic eruption
b. Tectonic - faulting a. Reservoir-induced
- Koyna dam (India) Mag. 6.5
- Oroville dam (USA) Mag. 5.7
2. Artificial causes - Aswan dam (Egypt) Mag.5.6

a. Nuclear b. Landslides
b. Weight drop
c. Vibrators
Tectonic: faulting
1. Movements within the Earth’s crust
cause stress or stored energy to build up.

2. As the stored energy increases rocks

begin to deform.

3. When the stress gets to great, the rock ruptures along a fault,
and the stored energy is suddenly released as an earthquake.
Elastic Rebound - Animation

55cd_ElasRebound_SP.swf
Distribution of Earth Quakes and its related to plate boundary’s
• The distribution of earthquakes is referred to as seismicity. Most
earthquakes occur along relatively narrow belts that coincide with
plate boundaries.
• Earthquakes along plate boundary can be divided into shallow
focus earthquakes that have focal depths less than about 70 km and
deep focus earthquakes that have focal depths between 75 and 700
km.
1. Earthquakes at Diverging Plate Boundaries.
• Earthquakes that occur along such boundaries show normal fault
motion and tend to be shallow focus earthquakes, with focal depths
less than about 20 km.
• Such shallow focal depths indicate that the brittle lithosphere must
be relatively thin along these diverging plate boundaries.
2. Earthquakes at Transform Fault Boundaries.
• Is where lithospheric plates slide past one another in a horizontal
fashion.
• Earthquakes along these boundaries show strike-slip motion on
the faults and tend to be shallow focus earthquakes with depths
usually less than about 50 km.
3. Earthquakes at Converging Plate Boundaries - where two
plates run into each other. There are two types of converging plate
boundaries. Example of deep focus earthquakes between 75-700 km.
(1) Subduction boundaries, where oceanic lithosphere is pushed
beneath either oceanic or continental lithosphere; and
(2) collision boundaries where two plates with continental
lithosphere collide.
earthquakes is common in;
1. In the belt of young fold mountain such as Himalayas and the
Alps mountain belt in Greece Italy, Turkey, Iran and North India
2. The zone of Major faulting and fracturing such as the Great East
African Rift valley in Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi and Mozambique
3. The Subduction plate margin in Japan, China, Philippines
Indonesia, New Zealand, Western USA (California)
4. The belt of crustal separation such as the mid oceanic ridges to
some extent. But the old, stable shield areas and the old plateau
masses are free from earth quake.
Where do earthquakes occur

56cd_PlateBound_SP.swf
Size of earthquakes

1. Earthquake magnitude

2. Earthquake intensity

3. Earthquake energy
 Measurement Earthquakes, Earthquake Magnitude and
Intensity:
• The vibrations caused earthquakes are recorded by
seismographs.
• Focus: The point of the earth’s crust from which an earth quake
disturbance emanates.
• Epicenter: is the point on the earth’s surface immediately
above the point of disturbance i.e. it is the vertical surface
projection of the focus.
• Epicentral distance is the distance from the epicenter to the
recording station. Earth quake vibrations are measured in
two ways:
 Epicentre

Fault
Focus

Seismic waves spread like ripples on a pond

Magnitude (m)
• Magnitude of an earth quake is the actual amount of energy
released from earth quake at the respective foci. It is measured
using Richter scale given by numbers ranging 1 to 10 which
represents almost negligible to very vibration respectively.
The Richter Magnitude Scale
Richter
Description Magnitudes Earthquake Effects
Micro Less than 2.0 Microearthquakes, not felt.

Very Minor 2.0-2.9 Usually not felt, but recorded.

Minor 3.0-3.9 Often felt, but rarely causes

damage.

Light 4.0-4.9 Noticeable shaking of indoor items,

rattling noises. Significant damage
unlikely.

5.0-5.9 Can cause major damage to poorly

constructed buildings over small
Moderate regions. Slight damage to well-
designed buildings.

Strong 6.0-6.9 Can be destructive in areas up to

about 100 miles across in populated
areas.

Major 7.0-7.9 Can cause serious damage over

larger areas.

Great 8.0-8.9 Can cause serious damage in areas

several hundred miles across.

Rare Great 9.0 or greater Devastating in areas several

thousand miles across.
2. Intensity:
• Intensity of an earth quake refers to the amount of surface
damage or degree of hazard due to earth quake.
• It is given by Mercalli Scale of numbers ranging I to XII which
represents almost no damage to total damage respectively.
• Intensity is not strictly dependent on the magnitude but also
dependent on nature and type of construction, population density
etc.
• So an earth quake of the same magnitude may have different
intensities if it occurs in a big municipality or in a desert.
A correlation between the Richter scale and the amount of total
energy released has been derived, with one unit increase in
magnitude approximating a 30 fold in energy.

Thus

a three-unit increase in magnitude, from 5 to 8 for example,

renders approximately a 30 x 30x 30, or a 27,000-fold increase in
energy released.
 Locating an earthquake using the time difference between
P- and S-waves
Measure the S-P times from the
seismograms recorded at each station.
Convert the measured s-P times to distances
(multiply by eight)
For each station, draw a circle around the
station with a radius equal to its distance
from the earthquake.

Seismograms recorded at each The earthquake will be at the

station point where all three circles
intersect.
 Locating an earthquake using the time difference
between P- and S-waves
Measured S-P times and distances for
each station.

Station S-P Time Distance

FURI 16 S 125 km
ATD 80 S 620 km
KMBO 125 S 995 km

The earthquake is at the point where all

Seismograms recorded at each station
three circles intersect.
 Effects of Earthquakes (hazard)
• Catastrophic earthquakes have a wide variety of destructive
effects.
• Primary effects (direct effect), those caused directly by fault
movement, include ground shaking and its effects on people and
structures and surface rupture.
Ground Shaking (Motion):
• The offset between rocks on opposite side of the fault can break
power lines, buildings, roads, bridges and other structures that
actually cross the fault.
• It is also important to consider not only how structures are built,
but what they are built on (geological formation).
• Buildings built on solid rock (bed rock-more resist) seem to suffer
far less damage than those built on deep soil (amplification).
More damage caused by:
 A higher magnitude earthquake
 A shallower earthquake
 Longer duration earthquake
 (Depending on the size (magnitude) of the earthquake,
the shaking may last from 10 seconds to 90 seconds)
 Type of soil
 Shaking is increased in soft, thick, wet soils
 Damage: Causes
• Ground motion
• Duration of Shaking
• Surface Rupture
• Poor building design
Direct Effects
• Rupture
• Death
• Bldg collapse
 Secondary effects (indirect) induced by the faulting and shaking
include liquefaction of the ground, landslides, fires, disease,
tsunamis, and regional changes in land elevation.
1. Landslides can be a series hazard in hilly area. The best
solution is reduce to build in such area.
• Even if a whole region is hilly, detailed engineering studies of
rock and soil properties and slope stability may make it possible
to avoid the most dangerous sites.
2. Fire which may be more devastating than ground movement.
• Fire occurs because fuel lines, tanks and power lines are broken
touching of flames and fueling them.
• At the same time, waterlines are broken leaving no way to fight
fires effectively
Indirect Effects Fire
– Fires
– Liquefaction
– Landslides

Earthquake-triggered landslides
3. TSUNAMI: A tsunami is a series of waves caused by large
earthquakes or landslides at or beneath the sea floor.
• This seismic movement with the displacement of huge volumes
of the sea water above it creates large, fast moving waves.
• a tsunami and a tidal wave are sea waves, two different unrelated
processes.
• A tidal wave is produced by high winds, while a tsunami is
caused by an underwater earthquake or landslide (usually
triggered by an earthquake) displacing ocean water.

Direction of wave
 EARTHQUAKE HAZARD, VULNERABILITY AND RISK
Earthquake Hazard
• A destructive physical event which may cause the loss of life or
injury, property damage, social and economical disruption or
environmental degradation.
• The earthquake hazard is taken as the “punch of nature” or
“external forces”.
• Each earthquake hazard is characterized by its location, intensity
and probability of occurrence.
Earthquake Vulnerability
A set of conditions and practice resulting from physical, social,
economical and environmental factors, which enhance the
susceptibility of a community to the effects of earthquake hazards.
Earthquake Risk
Expected losses (of lives, injuries, property, livelihoods, economic
activity disrupted or environment damaged) resulting from
interactions between the hazard and the vulnerability conditions.
Element at Risk
The vulnerability considered, it may be population, buildings, natural
resource, environment, etc.
Value of an Element at Risk
• An earthquake which occurs in the desert, or in remote area where
few people live will cause much less damage than if the same size
earthquake strikes an urban site.
• Thus, human is directly involved in the value of the element
exposed to risk.
• Risks are interconnected to the density of population, and the
concentration of economic and natural resources.
Earthquake Risk Assessment
• A procedure to determine the nature and scope of the earthquake
risk (consequences) by analyzing potential earthquake hazards and
evaluating existing conditions of vulnerability/capacity that could
cause a potential harm to people, property, livelihoods and the
environment on which they depend.
Earthquake Prediction
• A prediction that an earthquake of a specific magnitude will
occur in a particular place at a particular time.
• However, for well-understood faults seismic hazard assessment
maps can estimate the probability that an earthquake of a given
size will affect a given location over a certain number of years.
• Once an earthquake has already begun, early warning devices can
provide a few seconds' warning before major shaking arrives at a
given location.
• Experts do advise general earthquake preparedness, especially in
areas known to experience frequent or large quakes, to prevent
injury, death, and property damage if a quake occurs with or
without warning.
•
• Such predictions most likely will be based upon precursory
phenomena such as
• Patterns and frequency of earthquakes, such as the
foreshocks used
• Pre-seismic deformation of the ground surface
• Emission of radon gas
• Seismic gaps along faults
• Anomalous animal behavior (?)
Anomalous Animal Behavior (?)
• Anomalous animal behavior has often been reported before
large earthquakes. Reports have included dogs barking
unusually, chickens refusing to lay eggs, horses or cattle
running in circles, rats perching on power lines etc.
 The response to earthquake hazards, mitigation Measures
(Earthquake mitigation)
o Engineering and constructions measures (Strengthening
structures, control structures, etc.)
o Physical planning measures (Land use planning)
o Economic measures ( insurance, etc.)
o Management and institutional measures (Building capacity,
expertise, education, training, etc.)
o Social measures (Awareness, public information and
involvement, etc.)
o A step towards making the geologic hazard warning system work
would be increasing public awareness of earthquakes as a hazard.
o
Early warning system
To provide timely and effective information, through
recognized institutions, that let individuals at risk of a
disaster, to take action to avoid or reduce their risk and prepare
for effective response. The vital goal of hazard forecasting and
early warning systems is to protect lives and reduce property
damage.
WHAT TO DO BEFORE AN EARTHQUAKE?

• Make sure you have a fire extinguisher, first aid kit, a battery-
powered radio, a flashlight, and extra batteries at home.
• Learn first aid.
• Learn how to turn off the gas, water, and electricity.
• Make up a plan of where to meet your family after an earthquake.
• Don't leave heavy objects on shelves (they'll fall during a quake).
• Anchor heavy furniture, cupboards, and appliances to the walls or
floor.
• Learn the earthquake plan at your community, school or
workplace.
• Inspect and eventually retrofit your house or building.
 WHAT YOU MUST DO DURING AN EARTHQUAKE
• Stay calm! If you're indoors, stay inside. If you're outside, stay
outside.
• If you're indoors, stand against a wall near the centre of the
building, crawl under heavy furniture (a desk or table).
• Find a secure place and drop (move away from windows and glass

• Cover your head and neck.

• Stay where you are and do not move until the shaking stops.
• If you're outdoors, stay in the open away from trees and power
lines or anything that might fall.
• If you are in the kitchen, move away from the refrigerator, stove,
and overhead cupboards.
• Don't use matches, lighters, candles, or any flame.
• don't go together.
• If you're in a car, stop the car and stay inside the car until the
WHAT YOU MUST NOT DO DURING AN EARTHQUAKE
• Do not run to the stairs or exit doors,
• Do not go out to the balcony,
• Do not jump from balconies or windows,
• Do not use the elevator.
• Do not rush toward exits.
What You Must Do After an Earthquake
• Stay calm. Do not panic.
• Check yourself, members of your family and all others around you
for injuries. Provide first aid for anyone who needs it.
INSIDE
• Check for fire.
• Check water, gas, and electric lines for damage.
• Turn on the radio. Listen to emergency broadcast station on radio
or television.
• Be careful around broken glass and other hazardous objects.
• Stay away from beaches or seashore (Tsunamis)
• Stay away from damaged areas.
• Expect aftershocks. Earthquakes come in clusters.
OUTSIDE
• If you have been trained a Community Emergency Response
Volunteer
PERSONAL EARTHQUAKE KIT