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    Lecture04 VonNuemann

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    Lecture04 VonNuemann

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    Lecture04-VonNuemann

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    Lecture04 VonNuemann

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    CHAPTER 04

    THE VON NEUMANN COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE


    THE BASIC OPERATIONS OF A COMPUTER

     Regardless of type and size, all computers use the


    same four basic operations:
    (1) input,
    (2) processing,
    (3) storage, and
    (4) output. To this we add
    (5) communications.
    COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE/ VON NEUMANN
    ARCHITECTURE

     Early computer programs were hard wired.

     To reprogram a computer meant changing the


    hardware switches manually, that took a long time
    with potential errors.

     Computer memory was only used for storing data.

     John von Neumann suggested that data and programs


    should be stored together in memory.
     This “STORED-PROGRAM ” architecture is now known
    as Von-Neumann Architecture
    THE VON NEUMANN MODEL
    THE VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTURE

    Von Neumann microprocessor is a processor that


    follows this pattern:
     Fetch An instruction and the necessary data are

    obtained from memory.


     Decode The instruction and data are separated, and

    the components and pathways required to execute


    the instruction are activated.
     Execute The instruction is performed, the data is

    manipulated, and the results are stored.


    THE INSTRUCTION CYCLE OF VON NEUMANN
    ARCHITECTURE

    Fetch

    Execu Decod
    te e
    PARTS OF THE MICROPROCESSOR

    The simplified model consists of five parts, which are:


     Arithmetic & Logic Unit (ALU)

    The part of the central processing unit that deals with


    operations such as addition, subtraction, and multiplication of
    integers and Boolean operations. It receives control signals
    from the control unit telling it to carry out these operations

     Control Unit (CU)


    This controls the movement of instructions in and out of the
    processor, and also controls the operation of the ALU. It
    consists of a decoder, control logic circuits, and a clock to
    ensure everything happens at the correct time. It is also
    responsible for performing the instruction execution cycle.
    PARTS OF THE MICROPROCESSOR

     Register Array
    This is a small amount of internal memory that is used
    for the quick storage and retrieval of data and
    instructions. All processors include some common
    registers used for specific functions, namely the program
    counter, instruction register, accumulator, memory
    address register and stack pointer.
     System Bus
    This is comprised of the control bus, data bus and
    address bus. It is used for connections between the
    processor, memory and peripherals, and transferal of
    data between the various parts. Click the title above for
    more.
    PARTS OF THE MICROPROCESSOR

     Memory
    The memory is not an actual part of the CPU itself,
    and is instead housed elsewhere on the
    motherboard. However, it is here that the program
    being executed is stored, and as such is a crucial part
    of the overall structure involved in program
    execution.
    PARTS OF THE MICROPROCESSOR
    THE CONTROL UNIT

     The control unit issues control signals to the other areas


    of the processor, instructing them on what should be
    performed next. The three main elements of the control
    unit are :
     Decoder
    This is used to decode the instructions that make up a
    program when they are being processed, and to
    determine in what actions must be taken in order to
    process them. These decisions are normally taken by
    looking at the opcode of the instruction, together with
    the addressing mode used. This is covered in greater
    detail in the instruction execution section of this tutorial.
    THE CONTROL UNIT

     Timer or clock
    The timer or clock ensures that all processes and instructions are carried
    out and completed at the right time. Pulses are sent to the other areas of
    the CPU at regular intervals (related to the processor clock speed), and
    actions only occur when a pulse is detected. This ensures that the actions
    themselves also occur at these same regular intervals, meaning that the
    operations of the CPU are synchronised.
     Control logic circuits
    The control logic circuits are used to create the control signals themselves,
    which are then sent around the processor. These signals inform the
    arithmetic and logic unit and the register array what they actions and
    steps they should be performing, what data they should be using to
    perform said actions, and what should be done with the results.
     Further detail is not required at this stage on the control unit, though it is
    clear that there is much detail at lower levels that has yet to be touched
    on. However, to move on to the next element of the processor (the
    register array), please click the next button below
    REGISTERS

     A register is a memory location within the CPU itself,


    designed to be quickly accessed for purposes of fast
    data retrieval.
     Processors normally contain a register array, which
    houses many such registers. These contain
    instructions, data and other values that may need to
    be quickly accessed during the execution of a
    program. Many different types of registers are
    common between most microprocessor designs.
    These are:
    REGISTERS

    Program
    Instruction
    Counter
    Register (IR)
    (PC)

    Memory
    Accumulator Address
    (A) Register
    (MAR)
    Memory
    Buffer Flag
    Register(MB Registers
    R)
    REGISTERS

     Program Counter (PC)


    This register is used to hold the memory address of the next instruction that has
    to executed in a program.

     Instruction Register (IR)


    This is used to hold the current instruction in the processor while it is being
    decoded and executed

     Accumulator (A, or ACC)


    The accumulator is used to hold the result of operations performed by the ALU.

     Memory Address Register (MAR)


    Used for storage of memory addresses, usually the addresses involved in the
    instructions held in the instruction register. The control unit then checks this
    register when needing to know which memory address to check or obtain data
    from.
    REGISTERS

     Memory Buffer Register (MBR)


    When an instruction or data is obtained from the memory or elsewhere, it is
    first placed in the memory buffer register. The next action to take is then
    determined and carried out, and the data is moved on to the desired location.

     Flag register / status flags


    The flag register is specially designed to contain all the appropriate 1-bit
    status flags, which are changed as a result of operations involving
    the arithmetic and logic unit.

     Other general purpose registers


    These registers have no specific purpose, but are generally used for the quick
    storage of pieces of data that are required later in the program execution. In
    the model used here these are assigned the names A and B, with suffixes of L
    and U indicating the lower and upper sections of the register respectively.
    THE DETAILED MODEL OF VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTURE
    THE SYSTEM BUS

     The system bus is a cable which carries data


    communication between the major components of
    the computer, including the microprocessor.

     The system bus consists of three different groups of


    wiring, called the data bus, control bus and address
    bus.
    THE SYSTEM BUS

     These all have seperate responsibilities and


    characteristics, which can be outlined as follows:
    THE SYSTEM BUS

     Control Bus
    The control bus carries the signals relating to the control and co-
    ordination of the various activities across the computer, which can be
    sent from the control unit within the CPU. This is a bidirectional bus.
     Data Bus
    This is used for the exchange of data between the processor, memory
    and peripherals, and is bi-directional so that it allows data flow in both
    directions along the wires.

     Address Bus
    The address bus contains the connections between the microprocessor
    and memory that carry the signals relating to the addresses which the
    CPU is processing at that time, such as the locations that the CPU is
    reading from or writing to. The maximum address capacity is equal to
    two to the power of the number of lines present (2^lines).
    NOTE

     In many older computers, the address bus was 16


    bits wide (a = 16).
     This meant that there were 16 wires.
     Such microprocessors could address up to 216 =
    65536 memory locations.
     By increasing the width of the address bus, more
    memory locations can be directly addressed.
    WHY IS A DATA BUS BIDIRECTIONAL ,
    AND AN ADDRESS BUS UNIDIRECTIONAL ?
    THE DETAILED INSTRUCTION CYCLE

    The instruction execution cycle can be clearly divided into three


    different parts
     Fetch Cycle

    The fetch cycle takes the address required from memory, stores it in
    the instruction register, and moves the program counter on one so
    that it points to the next instruction.
     Decode Cycle

    Here, the control unit checks the instruction that is now stored
    within the instruction register. It determines which opcode and
    addressing mode have been used, and as such what actions need to
    be carried out in order to execute the instruction in question.
     Execute Cycle

    The actual actions which occur during the execute cycle of an


    instruction depend on both the instruction itself, and the addressing
    mode specified to be used to access the data that may be required.
     http://www.eastaughs.fsnet.co.uk/cpu/execution-
    fetch.htm
    FETCH
    DECODE AND EXECUTE

     Once the instruction has been fetched and is stored,


    the next step is to decode the instruction in order to
    work out what actions should be performed to
    execute it.

     This involves examining the opcode to see which of


    the machine codes in the CPU's instruction set it
    corresponds to.

     Opcode stands for Operation Code.


    DECODE AND EXECUTE

     Once the opcode is known, the execution cycle can occur.


    Different actions need to be carried out dependant on the
    opcode, with no two opcodes requiring the same actions to
    occur. However, there are generally four groups of different
    actions that can occur:
     Transfer of data between the CPU and memory.
     Transfer of data between the CPU and an input or output
    devices.
     Processing of data, possibly involving the use of the arithmetic
    and logic unit.
     A control operation, in order to change the sequence of
    subsequent operations. These can possibly be conditional,
    based on the values stored at that point within the flag
    register.
    AN OPCODE

     An opcode is a single instruction that can be executed by


    the CPU. In machine language, it is a binary or
    hexadecimal value as B6 loaded into the IR.

    In assembly language, an opcode is a mnemonic such as


    ADD, MOV, JMP, etc.

    For example,
    MOV, AL, 34h

    The parts AL and 34h are the operands, where AL is a


    register and 34hex is a value.
    FOR GREATER SIMPLICITY, AND AS DESCRIBING ALL THE POSSIBLE
    INSTRUCTIONS IS UNNECESSARY, WE WILL ONLY LOOK AT A FEW
    POSSIBLE INSTRUCTIONS. THESE ARE:

    Mnemonic Description
    MOV Moves a data value from one location to
    another
    ADD Adds to data values using the ALU, and
    returns the result to the accumulator
    STO Stores the contents of the accumulator in
    the specified location
    END Marks the end of the program in memory
    IMMEDIATE ADDRESSING

     When writing out the code in mnemonic form,


    operands that require this mode are marked with
    a # symbol. With immediate addressing, the data
    required for execution of the instruction is located
    directly within the operands of the instruction itself.
    No lookup of data from memory is required.
    ACTIVITY

     Class Activity : Write your first name as an ASCII bit


    configuration

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