UNIT 04 : -

BIOMEDICAL
RECORDING
SYSTEMS 2
BY
NESTOR JOHNSON PHILIPS
ASST. PROF. (E&TC)
 CONTENT
• Basic Recording systems
• Signal Conditioners
• Preamplifiers
• Sources of Noise in Low Level Measurements
• Isolation Amplifier, Electrocardiograph, Phonocardiograph,
Electroencephalograph, and Electromyography
*BASIC RECORDING SYSTEMS

Electrodes
Transducer
*BASIC RECORDING SYSTEMS
It consists of : -
• Measurand
• Electrode Transducer
(Sensor transducer)
• Signal Conditioner
 Preamplifier
 Signal Processing
• Feedback System
 Control System
 Calibration
Electrodes • Display system
Transducer • Alarm system
• Data Storage
• Data Transmission
*BASIC RECORDING SYSTEMS
• Measurand: -
The measurand is the physical quantity, and the
instrumentation systems measure it. Human body acts as the
source for measurand, and it generates bio-signals. Example:
body surface or blood pressure in the heart.
• Electrode Transducer (Sensor/ Transducer): -
The transducer converts one form of energy to another form
usually electrical energy. For example, the piezoelectric signal
which converts mechanical vibrations into the electrical signal.
The transducer produces a usable output depending on the
measurand. The sensor is used to sense the signal from the
source. It is used to interface the signal with the human.
*BASIC RECORDING SYSTEMS
• Signal Conditioner: -
Signal conditioning circuits are used to convert the
output from the transducer into an electrical value. The
instrument system sends this quantity to the display or
recording system. Generally, signal conditioning
process includes amplification, filtering, analogue to
digital and Digital to analogue conversions. Signal
conditioning improves the sensitivity of instruments.
 Preamplifier: -
A preamplifier is an electronic amplifier which amplifies
the signal before further processing.
*BASIC RECORDING SYSTEMS
 Signal Processing: -
Signal processing involves converting or transforming data in a
way that allows us to see things in it that are not possible via
direct observation. Signal processing allows engineers and
scientists to analyze, optimize, and correct signals, including
scientific data, audio streams, images, and video.
• Feedback System: -
Feedback System is the essential part of biomedical
instrumentation. Feedback system consists of Control
System ( for control the signal to achieve its desire output )
and Calibration (for auto-correction of accuracy with
respect to the existing error in the system)
*BASIC RECORDING SYSTEMS
• Display System
It is used to provide a visual representation of the
measured parameter or quantity. Example: Chart
recorder, Cathode Ray oscilloscope (CRO). Sometimes
alarms are used to hear the audio signals. Example:
Signals generated in Doppler Ultrasound Scanner used
for Fetal Monitoring.
• Alarm System
With upper and lower adjustable thresholds to indicate
when the measurand physical variable goes beyond the
preset limits.
*BASIC RECORDING SYSTEMS
• Data Storage
Data storage is used to store the data and can be used
for future reference. Recent days Electronic Health
records are utilized in hospitals.
• Data Transmission
Data transmission is used in Telemetric systems, where
data can be transmitted from one location to another
remotely.
 SIGNAL CONDITIONERS
Filtering & Digital Filtering &
Digital
amplification amplification
Convers Convers
+ Signal + Signal
Converting ion ion Converting

• Signal conditioners provide filtering, amplification,

converting, and/or other processes required to make sensor
outputs suitable for reading by computer boards. They are
used primarily for data acquisition, in which sensor signals
must be normalized and filtered to levels suitable for analog-
to-digital conversion. The digital signal is then available to
be analyzed or interpreted by a computerized device.
 SIGNAL CONDITIONERS
• Filtering
• Filters can be constructed from either active or passive components.
A passive filter uses only resistors, capacitors, and inductors with a
maximum gain of one. An active filter uses passive components and
active components like operational amplifiers and transistors. They
have a higher gain with sharper frequency response curves.
• Types of filters:- Low-pass, High-pass, Band-pass, Band-notch
• Amplification
• Amplification is a process which increases (amplifies) the signal for
possessing or digitization. Signal amplifiers often include electronic
components that amplify signals without producing significant
amounts of thermal noise. In some applications a signal must be
amplified or attenuated in order to drive a circuit or a system.
 SIGNAL CONDITIONERS
• Signal Converting: -
• In many instances it is required to convert a signal from one type to
another, in order to accommodate the driving input of circuits. Some
important signal converters are: Current-to-voltage converters ,
Voltage-to-frequency converters , Frequency-to-voltage converters ,
Current loop converters , Charge converters

• Digital Conversion
• Data acquisition is the digitizing and processing of multiple sensor or
signal inputs for the purpose of monitoring, analyzing and/or controlling
systems and processes. Analog sensors and signals are first normalized
by the use of filters, amplifiers and signal converters. The next wave of
the signal chain is the exchange of this signal to a digitized format. The
two most important conversion functions in this phase of the process
are analog-to-digital conversion and digital-to-analog conversion.
 PREAMPLIFIERS
• The primary function of a preamplifier is to extract
the signal from the detector without significantly
degrading the intrinsic signal-to-noise ratio.
• Therefore, the preamplifier is located as close as
possible to the detector, and the input circuits are
designed to match the characteristics of the
detector.
• Different pulse processing techniques are typically
employed, depending on whether the arrival time or
the amplitude (energy) of the detected event must
be measured.
 PREAMPLIFIERS
• Differential Amplifiers one which will reject any common mode
signal that appears simultaneously at both amplifier input
terminals and amplifies only the voltage difference that appears
across its input terminals. Most of the amplifiers used for
measuring bioelectric signals are of the differential type.
 PREAMPLIFIERS
• Ac coupled amplifiers have a limited frequency response and
are, therefore, used only for special medical applications such as
electrocardiograph machine. For electrocardiograms, an ac
amplifier with a sensitivity, giving 0.5 mV/cm, and frequency
response up to 1 kHz and an input impedance of 2 to 5 MW is
used. For such applications as retinography, EEG and EMG, more
sensitive ac amplifiers are required, giving a chart sensitivity of
say 50 mV/cm with a high input impedance of over 10 MW.
 PREAMPLIFIERS
• Carrier amplifiers are used with transducers which require an
external source of excitation. They are characterized by high
gain, negligible drift, extremely low noise and the ability to
operate with resistive, inductive or capacitive type transducers.
They essentially contain a carrier oscillator, a bridge balance and
calibration circuit, a high gain ac amplifier, a phase-sensitive
detector and a dc output amplifier.
 PREAMPLIFIERS
• Chopper Amplifier is used to amplify very small dc signals of
the order of microvolts. To avoid the drift problem that is
characterized by the direct coupled amplifier, the chopper
amplifier is used. The amplifier uses a chopping device that
converts a slowly varying direct current to an alternating voltage
(the dc is chopped into a square wave with a chopper
modulator). The resulting alternating voltage has amplitude that
is proportional to the input direct current and with phase
dependent on the polarity of the original signal. The resulting ac
square wave is amplified with an ac amplifier and then
demodulated to get an amplified dc.
 PREAMPLIFIERS
• Isolation amplifiers are used to provide protection against
leakage currents. They break the ohmic continuity of electric
signals between the input and output of the amplifier.
• We have 3 methods of isolation that can be used:
• Optical isolation
• Transformer isolation
• Capacitive isolation
 PREAMPLIFIERS
• Differential amplifier has three input terminals out of
which one is arranged at the reference potential and the
other two are live terminals.
• The differential amplifier is used when it is necessary to
measure the voltage difference between two points, both of
them varying in amplitude at different rates and in
different patterns.
 PREAMPLIFIERS
• Instrumentation amplifier is a differential voltage gain
device optimized for operation in an environment that is
hostile to precision measurements. It is consists of 3 op-
amps and 7 resistors.
• The instrumentation amplifier is made up of 2 parts: a
buffered amplifier (OP1, OP2) and a basic differential OP3.
LIST OF PREAMPLIFIERS USED IN
ECG: -
• Instrumentation Amplifiers
• Designed for high-precision, low-noise differential signal amplification.
• Examples:
• AD620 (Analog Devices)
• INA333 (Texas Instruments)
• MAX4208 (Maxim Integrated)

• Operational Amplifiers (Op-Amps)

• General-purpose amplifiers used in signal processing stages.
• Examples:
• TL082 (Texas Instruments)
• LM324 (STMicroelectronics)
• OPA2335 (Texas Instruments)
LIST OF PREAMPLIFIERS USED: -
• Chopper-Stabilized Amplifiers
• These amplifiers reduce offset and noise, making them
suitable for biopotential signal amplification.
• Examples:
• LTC2057 (Analog Devices)
• MAX4238 (Maxim Integrated)
• Low Noise Amplifiers (LNA)
• Amplifiers designed to work with very low amplitude signals.
• Examples:
• AD8421 (Analog Devices)
• OPA1611 (Texas Instruments)
LIST OF PREAMPLIFIERS USED: -
• Biopotential Amplifiers
• Specifically designed to amplify signals from biological
sources like the heart.
• Examples:
• AD8232 (Analog Devices)
• MAX30003 (Maxim Integrated)
LIST OF PREAMPLIFIERS USED IN
EEG: -
• Instrumentation Amplifiers
• Used for high-precision, low-noise differential amplification of EEG signals.
• Examples:
• AD620 (Analog Devices)
• INA118 (Texas Instruments)
• INA333 (Texas Instruments)
• 2. Operational Amplifiers (Op-Amps)
• General-purpose amplifiers often used in different stages of EEG signal
processing.
• Examples:
• TL072 (Texas Instruments)
• OPA2134 (Texas Instruments)
• LM324 (STMicroelectronics)
LIST OF PREAMPLIFIERS USED IN
EEG: -
• 3. Chopper-Stabilized Amplifiers
• These amplifiers reduce offset voltage and noise, which is critical
for small EEG signal amplification.
• Examples:
• LTC2057 (Analog Devices)
• MAX4238 (Maxim Integrated)
• 4. Low Noise Amplifiers (LNA)
• Designed to amplify extremely low-level signals with minimal
noise.
• Examples:
• AD8429 (Analog Devices)
• OPA188 (Texas Instruments)
LIST OF PREAMPLIFIERS USED IN
EEG: -
• 5. Biopotential Amplifiers
• Specifically designed for amplifying signals from biological sources, including EEG signals.
• Examples:
• AD8232 (Analog Devices)
• MAX30003 (Maxim Integrated)
• 6. Integrated EEG Front-End Amplifiers
• These are specialized amplifiers that incorporate multiple functions tailored for EEG
acquisition.
• Examples:
• ADS1299 (Texas Instruments)
• RHD2000 (Intan Technologies)
• 7. Electrode Amplifiers
• Designed to amplify signals directly at the electrode level, especially for wireless or portable
EEG systems.
• Examples:
• RHA2000 (Intan Technologies)
LIST OF PREAMPLIFIERS USED IN
EEG: -
• 5. Biopotential Amplifiers
• Specifically designed for amplifying signals from biological sources, including EEG signals.
• Examples:
• AD8232 (Analog Devices)
• MAX30003 (Maxim Integrated)
• 6. Integrated EEG Front-End Amplifiers
• These are specialized amplifiers that incorporate multiple functions tailored for EEG
acquisition.
• Examples:
• ADS1299 (Texas Instruments)
• RHD2000 (Intan Technologies)
• 7. Electrode Amplifiers
• Designed to amplify signals directly at the electrode level, especially for wireless or portable
EEG systems.
• Examples:
• RHA2000 (Intan Technologies)
EINTHOVEN’S TRIANGLE: -
EINTHOVEN’S TRIANGLE: -
ELECTROCARDIOGRAPH:
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF ECG
 ELECTROCARDIOGRAPH:
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF ECG

• Lead Selector - The potentials picked up by the

patient electrodes are taken to the lead selector
switch. In the lead selector, the electrodes are
selected two by two according to the lead program. By
means of capacitive coupling, the signal is connected
symmetrically to the long-tail pair differential
preamplifier.
• Preamplifier - The preamplifier is usually a three or
four stage differential amplifier having a sufficiently
large negative current feedback, from the end stage
to the first stage, which gives a stabilizing effect. The
amplified output signal is picked up single-ended and
 ELECTROCARDIOGRAPH:
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF ECG

• Power Amplifier - The power amplifier is generally of the push-

pull differentical type. The base of one input transistor of this
amplifier is driven by the preamplified unsymmetrical signal.
• The base of the other transistor is driven by the feedback
signal resulting from the pen position and connected via
frequency selective network.
• Theoutput of the power amplifier is single-ended and is fed to
the pen motor, which deflects the writing arm on the paper.
•A direct writing recorder is usually adequate since the ECG
signal of interest has limited bandwidth.
• Frequencyselective network is an R–C network, which provides
necessary damping of the pen motor and is preset by the
manufacturer.
 ELECTROCARDIOGRAPH:
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF ECG

• The auxiliary circuits provide a 1 mV calibration signal

and automatic blocking of the amplifier during a
change in the position of the lead switch. It may
include a speed control circuit for the chart drive
motor.
• A ‘stand by’ mode of operation is generally provided
on the electrocardiograph. In this mode, the stylus
moves in response to input signals, but the paper is
stationary. This mode allows the operator to adjust
the gain and baseline position controls without
wasting paper.
ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPH:
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF EEG
ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPH:
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF EEG

• Montages: A pattern of electrodes

on the head and the channels they
are connected to is called a
montage. Montages are always
symmetrical. The reference electrode
is generally placed on a nonactive
site such as the forehead or
earlobe. EEG electrodes are
arranged on the scalp according to
a standard known as the 10/20
system. Electrodes are identified
according to their position on the
head: Fp for frontal-polar, F for
frontal, C for central, P for
parietal, T for temporal and O for
 ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPH:
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF EEG

• Electrode Montage Selector: EEG signals are transmitted

from the electrodes to the head box, which is labelled
according to the 10–20 system, and then to the montage
selector. The montage selector on analog EEG machine is a
large panel containing switches that allow the user to
select which electrode pair will have signals subtracted
from each other to create an array of channels of output
called a montage. Each channel is created in the form of
the input from one electrode minus the input from a second
electrode.
• Preamplifier: The preamplifier used in
electroencephalographs must have high gain and low noise
characteristics because the EEG potentials are small in
 ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPH:
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF EEG

• Filters: The most effective way to eliminate muscle artefact is to

advise the subject to relax, but it is not always successful. These
artefacts are generally removed using lowpass filters. This filter
on an EEG machine has several selectable positions, which
are usually labelled in terms of a time constant. A typical
set of time constant values for the low-frequency control
are 0.03, 0.1, 0.3 and 1.0 s. These time constants
correspond to 3 dB points at frequencies of 5.3, 1.6, 0.53
and 0.16 Hz. The upper cut-off frequency can be controlled
by the high frequency filter. Several values can be selected,
typical of them being 15, 30, 70 and 300 Hz. Some EEG machines
have a notch filter sharply tuned at 50 Hz so as to eliminate
mains frequency interference.
 ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPH:
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF EEG

• Noise: EEG amplifiers are selected for minimum noise level,

which is expressed in terms of an equivalent input voltage.
Two microvolts is often stated as the acceptable figure for
EEG recording. Noise contains components at all
frequencies and because of this, the recorded noise
increases with the bandwidth of the system. It is therefore
important to restrict the bandwidth to that required for faithful
reproduction of the signal. Noise level should be specified as
peak-to-peak value as it is seen on the record rather than
rms value, which could be misleading.
• Writing Part: The writing part of an EEG machine is usually
of the ink type direct writing recorder. The best types of
pen motors used in EEG machines have a frequency
 ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPH:
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF EEG

• Paper Drive: This is provided by a synchronous motor. An

accurate and stable paper drive mechanism is necessary
and it is normal practice to have several paper speeds
available for selection. Speeds of 15, 30 and 60 mm/s are
essential. A time scale is usually registered on the record
by one or two time marker pens, which make a mark once
per second.
• Writing Part: The writing part of an EEG machine is usually
of the ink type direct writing recorder. The best types of
pen motors used in EEG machines have a frequency
response of about 90 Hz. The ink jet recording system,
which gives a response up to 1000 Hz, is useful for some
special applications. Timing pulses are preferably
 ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPH:
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF EEG

• Channels: An electroencephalogram is recorded

simultaneously from an array of many electrodes. The
record can be made from bipolar or monopolar leads. The
electrodes are connected to separate amplifiers and writing
systems. Commercial EEG machines have up to 32
channels, although 8 or 16 channels are more common.
 ELECTROMYOGRAPH:
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF EMG

• Electromyograph is an instrument
used for recording the electrical
activity of the muscles to determine
whether the muscle is contracting or
not.
• EMG measurements are also
important for the myoelectric
control of prosthetic devices.
• EMG is usually recorded by using
surface electrodes or more often by
using needle electrodes, which are
inserted directly into the muscle.
• The surface electrodes may be
disposable, adhesive types or the
ones which can be used repeatedly.
•
 ELECTROMYOGRAPH:
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF EMG

• These electrodes pick up the

potentials produced by the
contracting muscle fibres.
• The signal can then be
amplified and displayed on
the screen of a cathode ray
tube. It is also applied to an
audio-amplifier connected to
a loudspeaker.
• A trained EMG interpreter
can diagnose various
muscular disorders by
listening to the sounds
produced when the muscle
 ELECTROMYOGRAPH:
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF EMG

• The tape recorder is included

in the system to facilitate
playback and study of the
EMG sound waveforms at a
later convenient time.
• The waveform can also be
photographed from the CRT
screen by using a
synchronized camera.
• The amplitude of the EMG
signals depends upon various
factors, e.g. the type and
placement of electrodes used
and the degree of muscular
 ELECTROMYOGRAPH:
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF EMG

• The needle electrode in

contact with a single muscle
fibre will pick up spike type
voltages whereas a surface
electrode picks up many
overlapping spikes and
therefore produces an
average voltage effect.
• A typical EMG signal ranges
from 0.1 to 0.5 mV. They may
contain frequency
components extending up to
10 kHz.
 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR SIGNAL
CONDITIONERS

• Signal Amplification: The signals available from the transducers are

often very small in magnitude. Amplifiers boost the level of the input
signal to match the requirements of the recording/display system or
to match the range of the analog-to-digital convertor, thus increasing
the resolution and sensitivity of the measurement. Bioelectric
measurements are basically low-level measurements, which involve
amplifying and recording of signals often at microvolt levels.
• Frequency Response: Modern biomedical instruments are designed to
handle data with bandwidths from dc up to several hundred cycles
per second. Electrical or mechanical filters cannot separate useful
signals from the noise when their bandwidths overlap. Instruments
and recording systems that work satisfactorily for steady state or low
frequency data are generally inadequate to meet this requirement
 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR SIGNAL
CONDITIONERS

• Filtering: A filter is a circuit which amplifies some of the

frequencies applied to its input and attenuates others. There
are four common types: high-pass, which only amplifies
frequencies above a certain value; low-pass, which only
amplifies frequencies below a certain value; bandpass, which
only amplifies frequencies within a certain band; and band stop,
which amplifies all frequencies except those in a certain band.
• Isolation: Improper grounding of the system is one of the most
common causes of measurement problems and noise. Signal
conditioners with isolation can prevent these problems. Such
devices pass the signal from its source to the measurement
device without a physical or galvanic connection by using
transformer, optical or capacitive coupling techniques.
 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR SIGNAL
CONDITIONERS

• Excitation: Signal conditioners are sometimes also required to

generate excitation for some transducers. Strain gauges,
thermistors, for example, require external voltage or current
excitation. Signal conditioning part of the measurement system
usually provides the excitation signal. Strain gauges are
resistance devices in a Wheatstone bridge configuration, which
require bridge completion circuitry and an excitation source.
• Linearizaion: Another common signal conditioning function is
linearization. Many transducers such as thermocouples and
thermistors have a non-linear response to changes in the
phenomenon being measured. Signal conditioners include
either hardware-based or software-based linearization routines
for this purpose.