Becoming a Critical Thinker

by Sarah Ivory
 Chapter 4
Quality of Argument
CHAPTER STRUCTURE

i. Introduction
ii. Components of an argument.
iii. Logical Reasoning
iv. Mastering The basic claims, links , and premises
v. Introducing complexity and using argument maps
vi. How to develop an argument
 Questions to Contemplate

1. What is the difference between arguing and an argument ?

2. What is an argument and why is it the basis of critical thinking?
3. What determines a 'quality' argument and how do we know?
 LEARNING GOALS

After this chapter you will be able to:

1. Identify and master the individual components of an argument (claims, premises, and
links) and understand how they are related to each other
2. Examine logical reasoning and understand logical flaws and leaps of logic
3. Use argument maps and appreciate their value in developing complex arguments
including supporting premises, as well as counter argument and rebuttals
4. Apply six steps to develop a line of reasoning and decide on our argument
The three aims of critical thinking:

Quality of
Argument

Critical
Thinking

Strength of Clarity of
Evidence Communication
INTRODUCTION

 Developing an argument is one of the key aims of critical thinking.

 It is the attempts to explain or understand something new, or in a new way,
based on logical thought and reasoning.
 it also includes attempts to persuade the audience to accept or believe
something.
INTRODUCTION

 One of the most common issues students face at university is not developing
their own arguments.
 There are three main reasons for this:
 1/ not realizing that this is what is expected of them
 2/ not knowing what an argument is
 3/ not knowing how to develop an argument.
 en t?
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 An Argument

 Having an argument does not mean disagreement

or fight.

 Having an argument means presenting a

position and supporting it with reasons
(evidence).
This chapter aims to explain components of arguments and how
they relate to each other in the most simple way.
 What the meaning of Argument?

Argument: Group of statements intended to prove or support another statement.

Statement: Sentence that can be viewed as either true or false.

 Which one is a statement ?

Examples:
• Red is a color.
• Abortion is morally wrong.
• Canada is in South America.
• Don’t you know smoking will kill you?
Components of an argument:

 Making an argument is adopting a position on a topic and supporting that

with reasons.
We might then use our argument to try to convince or persuade someone.
A more technical approach to understanding an argument' is to consider the
three necessary components:
 A claim (position or 'answer")
 At least one premise (reason)
 A link (connection between the claim and premise)

all three components need to be present for an argument to exist, in some

cases these may be implicit or unsaid.
Components of an argument:

 The claim is the position we are taking. Where we have been asked a question, it
is our ultimate answer to that question.

 A premise provides the reason to support the claim.

 Premises: Statements in an argument offered as evidence or reasons.
 At least one premise (reason).

 A link (connection between the claim and premise)

Presenting a claim and a premise is still not an argument, until we have demonstrated
the link
 The primary functions of the link is to demonstrate how the claim is associated
with the premise.
 Components of an argument:

Bringing these three components together we can present a simple argument

in response to this question:

 Question: Other than the formal curriculum, what else is important in a

university degree?
 Argument: In a university degree, students should be exposed to a range of
world view and cultures ( Claim) because (Link) this will contribute to their
critical thinking (premise)

The claim is the answer to the question, and the premise is the reason which
supports the claim.
This is a simple argument which contains one premise and one claim, and these
are linked.
 EXERCISE
 Determine whether the following are, or are not, arguments. Identify (if
present), the claim, the premise(s), and the link.

1. Jane Austen's character 'Emma' is young, rich, and bored.

2. Because prisoners can learn from each other in prison, sending first time
offenders to prison can actually increase reoffending rates.
 LOGICAL REASONING

 Critical thinker relies primarily on logos which is defined as the logic of the underlying
argument
 The logos is the logical reasoning of the argument.
 This reflects the relationship between a premise (or multiple premises) and the claim.
 Flaws in logical reasoning result in weak arguments.

 There may be a number of different flaws including non sequiturs (the claim doesn't
follow from the premise) or inconsistencies (there is a contradiction between the claim
and the premises) >>These are called logical fallacies.
Consider this example:
1- It was the best cookbook because the cover was green, and the text was black

2- John will be a good student because he loves cheese

Consider this example:
1- It was the best cookbook because the cover was green, and the text was black

This has all the necessary components of an argument: a claim, a premise, and a link. But
it just doesn't make sense how can the colors determine whether it is the best cookbook?

2- John will be a good student because he loves cheese

There appears to be a flaw in the logical reasoning of this argument (the claim doesn't
make sense given the premise).

A quality argument does not contain flaws in logical reasoning and avoids leaps
of logic.
Mastering the basics: claims, links, and premises:

1. Claim:
 the position, stance, or contention of the argument. Also, the answer to the
question being asked.
 To determine if a statement could be a claim, ask 'But why?' and see if the response
makes sense.
 It may be implicit (but you should make your claims explicit)

2- Link:
 Relationship between the claim and the premise(s).
 simply use indicators words like 'therefore' or 'because’.
 A link turns two statements into an argument and explains the logical reasoning
between those statements.
 Claim indicators : are words which indicate that a claim is about to follow.
 Some common ones include: therefore, thus, so, as a consequence, this shows that,
this suggests that,
 this implies that, this proves that, consequently, accordingly, and nonetheless (often
used when rebutting a counter argument )

 Premise indicators : are words which indicate that a premise is about to be offered.
Some common ones include: because, since, for, in view of, and given that.
 Mastering the basics: claims, links, and premises:

3- Premise(s):

• it Provides justification for accepting the claim

• It is a key element to determining the quality of the argument.
• A claim without premises is not an argument: it is just a statement.

Things to avoid: categorical premises, vague premises, or premises appealing to emotion

it can lead our audience to assume that we are incorrect, or possibly biased.
All CEOs are self-interested, therefore, employees are underpaid
Example of Categorical premises :

All CEOs are self-interested, therefore, employees are underpaid

• Can we prove that all CEOs are self-interested? Unlikely no

• modify the premise in the argument above in this way:
• Many CEOs are self-interested, therefore, employees are underpaid
• Replacing 'all' with 'many’
• This premise may still not be accurate, but it is more believable that 'many'
CEOs are self-interested than that 'all' CEOs are.
 Mastering the basics: claims, links, and premises:

• Vague premises lack detail or clarity.

• The logical reasoning in the argument is unclear and our audience may struggle to
understand
• Example :
Poor people are disconnected, therefore, economic instability.

• Reasoning in the argument is unclear.

• To address vague premises, we usually just need to provide more detail.

Poor people are disconnected from government departments and charities that can
support them in times of economic hardship, therefore, instability affects poor people.
Mastering the basics: claims, links, and premises:

• Premises appealing to emotion should be avoided.

• critical thinkers rely on logical reasoning to develop arguments. Premises
which appeal to emotion are relying on pathos.

• Example:
You shouldn’t give me an F in the class just
because I failed all the exams. I had a rough semester.
• A grade is deserved by achievement, not by circumstance
 Topic of the week:

Drug addicts should be helped and not punished.

Introducing complexity and using argument maps

 It is rare that an argument will provide just one premise.

 What is more likely, is that there will be many premises which are all related in different
ways or performing different functions within the overall argument.

Additional components of an argument:

• Supporting Premises:

Premises presented to support, not the claim, but the direct premise to the claim.

Adding support premises creates a chained argument.

Additional components of an argument

Counter arguments:

• Premises which do not support our claim

• counter arguments may occur to our audience as they are evaluating our argument.

• Incorporating counter-arguments into your argument is a way of strengthening your

argument, not weakening it; in other words:

• Acknowledging the existence and even the strengths of counterarguments, demonstrate

that the individual understands the complexity of the topic he is exploring.

• We can then offer a rebuttal-an explanation for why the counter argument is not valid or
does not weaken our original argument.
Additional components of an argument

Rebuttals:

Responses explaining why the counterargument is either not valid or does not weaken the
main argument.

On the Rebuttals :

• counter-counterarguments
• reasons why the counterarguments are wrong
• reasons why your claim is better than the counterarguments
Example:
This table shows an argument, counter-argument, and one possible rebuttal to this
counter-argument:

Arguments Counter-argument Rebuttal

The primary focus of Terminally ill patients are Depression can be managed.
medical end-of-life decisions likely to be depressed, and, The relevance of depression
should be on patient therefore, unable to consent must be made on a case-by-
consent, rather than the to their hastened death in a case basis. Depression does
doctor's intention because it balanced or acceptable way. not warrant a general rule
is not a breach of a patient's prohibiting patients from
rights if s/he consents to the consenting to a hastened
termination of their life. death.
 Additional components of an argument

Implicit premises:

"Hidden' premises between a premise and claim.

Deciding which implicit premises to make or explicit depends on focus and audience.

Explicit and implicit premises:

An explicit premise: is when a premise is mentioned directly as part of an argument

An implicit premise :is when the premise is hinted at and used as part of the argument.
Argument Maps:

Argument maps depict an argument visually by using box and arrow

diagrams to distinguish between different components.

Research has shown argument mapping enhances critical thinking

performance (Dwyer et al., 2012; van Gelder, 2015).
Argument Maps:
FIGURE 4.1 Six steps for developing an argument
 Six Step to developing an argument:

Step one: List the likely claims : first step is to start by listing likely claims: likely
answers to the question.
Some questions can be quite open with a number of likely answers.

Example : 'What is the best political system to promote social stability?”

Step two: Brainstorm possible premises : Having listed the likely claims,
brainstorming is an opportunity to note down premises which support each claim.

Step three: Evaluate and improve the quality of premises : A good way to do this is to
use THE three guidelines for quality premises: avoid categorical premises, avoid vague
premises, and avoid premises appealing to emotion.
 Six Step to developing an argument:

Step four: Identify the primary issue: This step involves identifying the primary issue in the
list which we judge.
• identifying what we judge to be the primary issue, gives us the main premise around
which we can construct our argument.
• Deciding on the primary issue requires our own reasoning and judgement.

Step five: Make your argument: develop a quality argument using the premises we
have brainstormed and then improved.

Step six: Add a counter argument : a counter argument most commonly disputes the
premise or the link to the claim.
• give an example of each here.
CHAPTER SUMMARY:

• Simple arguments comprise three elements: a claim, at least one premise, and a
link between them.
• The claim is the 'answer' to the question, which some call the position, conclusion,
or contention.
• Links can be either claim indicators or premise indicators and are extremely
important to understanding the line of reasoning.
• Premises are reasons to support the claim: they should avoid being categorical,
vague, or an appeal to emotion.
• Supporting premises provide reasons to support a stated premise. Adding a number
of premises together creates chained premises which depict our line of reasoning.
Some premises may remain implicit.
• Counter arguments can strengthen our argument either because we can rebut
them, or because they demonstrate that we understand the complexity.