Review: Mitochondria

Take a minute to review your notes and/or text for the

structures of the mitochondria

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 Cellular Respiration
Cells harvest chemical energy stored in organic
molecules and use it to generate ATP
Organic molecules + oxygen CO2 + H2O + energy

Starch is the major

source of fuel for animals
● Breaks down into
glucose

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 Cellular Respiration
Catabolic breakdown of glucose: Remember:
OIL RIG or
Oxidized LEO goes GER

C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy (ATP and heat)

Reduced
The oxidation of glucose transfers e- to a lower
energy state, releasing energy to be used in ATP
synthesis
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Path of Electrons in Energy Harvest
During cellular respiration, most electrons will follow
this “downhill” exergonic path:

glucose NADH ETC oxygen

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 Energy Harvest
Glucose is broken down in steps to harvest energy
● Electrons are taken from glucose at different steps
● Each e- taken travels with a proton (H+)
○ Dehydrogenases take 2 e- and 2 protons from
glucose
■ Oxidizing agent for glucose
○ Transfers 2e- and 1 proton to the coenzyme
NAD+. Reduces to NADH (stores the energy)
■ Other proton is released into surrounding solution
as H+
○ NADH carries e- to the electron transport chain
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 Energy Harvest
● Electron transport chain (ETC): a sequence of
membrane proteins that shuttle electrons down a
series of redox reactions
○ Releases energy used to make ATP
○ ETC transfers e- to O2 (the final e- acceptor) to
make H2O
■ Releases energy

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Stages of Cellular Respiration
There are three stages of cellular respiration:
1. Glycolysis
2. Pyruvate oxidation and the citric acid cycle
3. Oxidative phosphorylation (ETC and
chemiosmosis)

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 Glycolysis
● Starting point of cellular respiration
● Occurs in the cytosol
● Splits glucose (6C) into 2 pyruvates (3C)

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Glycolysis

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 Glycolysis
● Summarized pathway:

Glucose

ADP + P 2 NAD+

2 ATP 2 NADH + 2H+

2 H2O

2 pyruvate

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 Glycolysis
● Two stages
○ Energy investment stage: the cell uses ATP to
phosphorylate compounds of glucose
○ Energy payoff stage: energy is produced by
substrate level phosphorylation
■ The net energy yield per 1 glucose:
● 2 ATP
● 2 NADH

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 Glycolysis Summary
Pyruvate Citric acid ETC and
Glycolysis oxidation cycle chemiosmosis

Energy Investment 2 ATP 2 ADP + P

Energy Payoff 4 ADP + P 4 ATP

2 NAD+ + 4e- + 4H+ 2 NADH + 2H+
Net 2 Pyruvate + 2 H2O
2 ATP
2 NADH + 2H+
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 Quick Check
1. Where does glycolysis occur?
a. Answer: cytosol
2. What is produced through glycolysis?
a. Answer: pyruvate
3. What is the net production of ATP?
a. Answer: 2 ATP

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Pyruvate Oxidation and Citric Acid Cycle
If oxygen is present, the pyruvate enters the
mitochondria (eukaryotic cells)
● Pyruvate is oxidized into acetyl coA
○ Acetyl coA is used to make citrate in the citric
acid cycle
● 2 CO2 and 2 NADH are produced

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 Pyruvate Oxidation
CoA
Pyruvate Acetyl CoA
CO2
NAD+ NADH + CO2

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 Citric Acid Cycle
● Also known as the Krebs cycle
● Occurs in the mitochondrial matrix
● Turns acetyl CoA into citrate
○ Releases CO2
○ ATP synthesized
○ Electrons transferred to NADH and FADH2

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Citric Acid Cycle

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 Citric Acid Cycle
Summarized pathway (per glucose molecule):

Inputs Outputs
2 acetyl CoA 2 ATP
Citric acid 6 NADH
cycle 4 CO2
2 FADH2

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 Quick Check
1. Where does the citric acid cycle occur?
a. Answer: mitochondrial matrix
2. What is the net production of ATP in the citric acid
cycle?
a. Answer: 2 ATP

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Oxidative Phosphorylation
● Oxidative phosphorylation consists of:
○ Electron transport chain
○ Chemiosmosis

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Electron Transport Chain

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 Electron Transport Chain
● The ETC is located in
the inner membrane of
the mitochondria
○ Collection of proteins
○ As the electrons “fall”
proteins alternate
between reduced
(accepts e-) and
oxidized (donates e-)
state

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 Electron Transport Chain
● The cristae increase the surface area for the
reactions to occur
● Does not produce ATP directly
○ Helps manage the release of energy by creating
several small steps for “fall” of electrons

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 Electron Transport Chain
● The final electron acceptor is oxygen
○ Each oxygen pairs with 2 H+ and 2 e- to form
H2O

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 Electron Transport Chain
● One major function of the ETC is to create a
proton (H+) gradient across the membrane
○ As proteins shuttle electrons along the ETC,
they also pump H+ into the intermembrane
space
■ Use the exergonic flow of electrons from NADH
and FADH2
○ This gradient will power chemiosmosis
■ Uses hydrogen ions to power cellular work

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Pumping H+

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 Chemiosmosis
● ATP synthase: the enzyme that makes ATP from
ADP + P
○ Uses energy from the H+ gradient across the
membrane

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 Chemiosmosis
● H+ ions flow down their gradient through ATP
synthase
○ ATP synthase acts like a rotor
■ When H+ binds the rotor spins
● Activates catalytic sites to turn ADP + P into
ATP

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 Chemiosmosis
● Produces about 26-28 ATP per glucose

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 Quick Check
1. How is a proton gradient formed across the inner
mitochondrial membrane?
a. Answer: the exergonic flow of electrons from
NADH and FADH2 powers the complexes in
the ETC to pump H+ into the intermembrane
space
2. What is the final electron acceptor in the ETC?
a. Answer: oxygen
3. How does ATP synthase obtain energy to convert
ADP + P to ATP?
a. Anwer: from the proton gradient.
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 Summary Inputs Outputs
Glycolysis 1 glucose 2 pyruvate
2 ATP
2 NADH
Pyruvate oxidation 2 pyruvate 2 acetyl CoA
2 CO2
2 NADH
Citric acid cycle 2 acetyl CoA 4 CO2
2 ATP
6 NADH
2 FADH2
Oxidative phosphorylation 10 NADH 26-28 ATP
2 FADH2
Total ATP 30-32 ATP
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Respiration without
Oxygen

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 Respiration
Remember: in cellular respiration, oxygen is the
final electron acceptor- it drives electrons down the
ETC. So how do organisms produce ATP in the
absence of oxygen?
● Anaerobic respiration
● Fermentation

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 Anaerobic Respiration
Anaerobic respiration: generates ATP using an ETC
in the absence of oxygen
● Takes place in prokaryotic organisms that live in
environments with no oxygen
● The final electron acceptors: sulfates or nitrates

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 Fermentation
Fermentation: generates ATP without an ETC
● Extension of glycolysis
○ Recycles NAD+
○ Occurs in the cytosol
○ NO oxygen
○ Two types
■ Alcohol fermentation
■ Lactic acid fermentation

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 Alcohol Fermentation
Alcohol fermentation: pyruvate is converted into
ethanol
● Examples: bacteria, yeast

2 ADP + P 2 ATP

Glucose Glycolysis 2 Pyruvate

2 NAD+ 2 NADH + 2H+ 2 CO2

2 Ethanol © Getting Down With Science

2 Acetaldehyde
 Lactic Acid Fermentation
Lactic acid fermentation: pyruvate is reduced
directly by NADH to form lactate

2 ADP + P 2 ATP

Glucose Glycolysis 2 Pyruvate

2 NAD+ 2 NADH + 2H+

2 Lactate © Getting Down With Science

 Lactic Acid Fermentation
Example: muscle cells
● When muscles run out of oxygen, they can go
through lactic acid fermentation to produce ATP
○ Causes the burning sensation you may feel
when performing strenuous exercise

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 Lactic Acid Fermentation
Breakdown of lactate
● Muscles produce lactate, which goes into the
blood, and is broken down back to glucose in the
liver
○ When lactate is in the blood, it lowers the pH
○ If lactate builds up and is unable to be broken
down it can lead to lactic acidosis
■ Excessively low blood pH

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Respiration: Putting it all Together
Glycolysis
With oxygen NO oxygen
(cytosol)

Pyruvate Fermentation
oxidation
30-32
Citric acid ATP
cycle Lactic Alcohol
acid
Oxidative
phosphorylation
(ETC and 2 ATP 2 ATP
chemiosmosis)
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 Practice FRQ
The catch and release method of fishing was once thought
to be a beneficial method for conserving the number of fish
in a body of water, but it is now known to be potentially
deadly for up to 72 hours after a fish has been caught.
When a fish is caught and pulled out of the water, it cannot
take in oxygen. The fish experiences extreme stress during
this time, which triggers “shimmying,” a condition where
fish will use their muscles to vigorously shake back and
forth. a) Identify the stage of cellular respiration that is
directly affected by the lack of oxygen. b) Explain the
importance of oxygen for cellular respiration. c) Explain
how the fish is most likely able to generate energy to
“shimmy” in the absence of oxygen.
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 Practice FRQ
Examining the permeability of mitochondria revealed that
the outer membrane was permeable to H +. After
discovering this, a researcher wanted to study the effects
of pH on the activity of mitochondria. Mitochondria from
liver cells were isolated and exposed to solutions at pH 9,
8, 7, 6, and 5. The results indicated that mitochondria
were most active at pH 5. a) Explain how pH may affect
the relative concentration of ions in the mitochondria. b)
Propose a model to explain how a low pH could increase
the productivity of mitochondria.

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