Senior High School

Earth Science
Quarter 2 - Module 6
History of the
Earth

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1. How is the estimated age of the Earth determined? It is determined through ____.
A. fossils C. absolute dating
B. relative dating D. the use of the clock

2. How do geologists separate time periods in the geologic time scale? They separate it by
_________.
A. studying fossil records
B. looking at the relative time of a fossil
C. counting the years a fossil has been preserved
D. looking at the special events that have happened in that period

3. In which type of rocks are fossils found?

C. igneous rock C. sedimentary rock
D. metamorphic rock D. all of the above

4. Which of the following is/are characteristics of a marker fossil?

I. abundant III. widespread
II. short lived IV. easily recognizable
A. I only B. I&II C. I, II, III D. I, II, III, IV
7. Why is this fossil CANNOT be called a marker fossil? It is not
_______.
A. abundant C. short lived
B. widespread D. easily recognizable

8. Correlate the theoretical outcrops. Which layers are of the

same age?
C. A&E C. A&H
D. E&G D. D&H

9. Which division on the geologic time scale is the shortest?

A. eon B. epoch C. era D. period
10. In which era did humans first appear?
A. Cenozoic B. Mesozoic C. Paleozoic D. Precambrian

11. Which of the following era is called the “age of reptiles”?

B. Cenozoic B. Mesozoic C. Paleozoic D. Precambrian

12.What animals were dominant during the Mesozoic Era?

C. bacteria B. fish C. mammals D. reptile

13. If Devonian period is often called the “age of fishes” then, how
about Triassic period?
D. ancient life C. age of mammals
E. age of reptiles D. none of these
14. What is the correct order of time frames from oldest to youngest?
A. Precambrian Era, Paleozoic Era, Mesozoic Era, Cenozoic Era
B. Mesozoic Era, Precambrian Era, Cenozoic Era, Paleozoic Era
C. Paleozoic Era, Mesozoic Era, Precambrian Era, Cenozoic Era
D. Cenozoic Era, Paleozoic Era, Mesozoic Era, Precambrian Era

15. Which of the following events could have contributed to the late
Paleozoic extinction?
E. climate change
F. increased volcanic activity and meteorite impact
G. suturing and formation of the Pangaea supercontinent
H. all of the above
 The History of the
Earth
DATING THE EARTH
Directions: On a sheet of paper, draw a Venn diagram to
show the similarities and differences between absolute
dating and relative dating. Use the phrases inside the
box.
 FOSSIL MAP

Direction: Copy and complete the concept map below by filling up with the
proper terms listed below. (move up boxes; check capitalization; spacing
9
 While man divides time into millennia, centuries,
decades, years, months, days, minutes and seconds.
Geologists, specifically geochronologists, tracked down
the earth’s history, measured geologic time and devised
the geologic time scale.

What is Geologic Time?

Geologic time is the chronology of the Earth’s
formation, changes, development, and existence. These
events are measured on a geological time scale.
Scientists do not measure geologic time on a clock or
calendar. They use a linear timeline based on the age
of rocks and their corresponding fossils as well as the
change in life that occurred over millions of years.
Geologists have divided Earth’s history into a series of
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because geologic time is divided using significant
events in the history of the Earth.
How do geologists come up with geologic time? They
are able to come up with the geologic time scale
through absolute dating and relative dating techniques.

How relative and absolute dating were used to

determine the subdivisions of geologic time?
To track down the events that took place in the Earth,
geologists and paleontologists had turned their eyes on
the rocks. In the 1800’s these scientists don’t know yet
the ages of rocks, but one thing is sure they had fully
understood relative ages. Relative dating enables them
to determine the relative ages of rocks based on the
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relative dating, scientists do not determine the exact
age of the rock or the fossils in it. They determine
which ones are older or younger than others. They
also saw that fossils in older rocks are different from
the fossils in younger rocks. For example, older rock
layers contain only reptile fossils and younger rock
layers may also contain mammal fossils.
Ordering rock layers from oldest to youngest was a
first step in creating the geologic time scale. It does
not only show the order in which life on Earth changed
but also how certain areas changed over time with
regards to climate or type of environment. However,
the early geologic time scale only showed the order of
events. It did not show the actual years that events
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different rocks. In absolute dating geologists use the
radioactive decay of certain elements. The half-life of a
radioactive isotope used in dating is the basis for dating
the rocks. This dating technique enables the geologists
to determine the ages of rocks and estimate the timing
of events in the geologic time scale.

With relative dating historical events are place in their

proper order in the geologic time scale while absolute
dating gives the estimated timing of the events that
took place.

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 How do index fossils relate to
geologic time?
Paleontologists had found out very important
stories in every fossil. Fossils record the
earth’s life stories. One of which is how old
the earth is. Not all fossils will be used to
determine the age of the planet. Only index
fossils or marker fossils or guide fossils are
used to determine the relative age of a rock. A
fossil will only be considered as an index
fossil if it follows the following criteria: easily
recognizable abundant widespread short-
lived. One example of an index fossil is the
trilobite fossil. It was found out that trilobites
existed during the Paleozoic era from middle
Cambrian period to the Permian period. Other
macrofossils that are considered index fossils
Index fossils are able to tell the story of the earth. Aside
from telling us the environmental conditions and the
characteristics of organisms during their existence, the
age of a certain rock can also be determined. The age of
rock layers can be determined through matching.
Matching is a process of correlating rock layers of
different location through the presence or absence of a
certain index fossil. Basically, this follows the faunal
fossil succession principle. If you are to study the figure
below, the rock layers coming from different areas are
being matched. The layer containing the same fossils are
basically of the same age and comes from the same
period. Figure 2 shows how the rock layers in the first
area is being correlated or matched with the rock layers
in the second area. As shown, the second layer from the
The age of an unknown fossil
could also be determined
through the use of index
fossils. Let us try to look at the
picture below where an
unknown fossil is found to be
together with known index
fossils (mollusks) found at the
middle layer of the rock
column. We can say that the
age of the unknown fossil
starts at the green layer up to
the younger layer because of
the presence of its
accompanying fossils.
Index fossils had helped in determining geological history.
Index fossils are able to tell us the relative age of rocks and
even the age of unknown fossils. Further, the geological time
scale is built up by setting a clear demarcation of the
boundaries between eons, among eras, among periods and
Geologic Time Scale (GTS)

The geologic time scale is the “calendar” for events in

Earth’s history. The enumeration of those geologic time
units is based on stratigraphy, which is the correlation and
classification of rock strata. The index fossil forms that
occur in the rocks provide the chief means of establishing a
geologic time scale, with the timing of the emergence and
disappearance of widespread species from the fossil record
being used to delineate the beginnings and endings of each
unit of time in the GTS. Moreover, absolute dating
techniques enables to measure the length of each unit of
time in the GTS. Unlike the human calendar, the GTS is
subdivided into named units of abstract time arranged in
descending order of duration namely eons, eras, periods,
epochs, and ages. Eons being the longest period and ages
How are the GTS division
decided?

The subdivisions are based on

but not limited to these events:
1.The first appearance of a
species.
2.Extinction of key species or
mass extinction events in a
short amoun At of geologic
time.
3.Major global climate change.
4.Formation or separation of
supercontinents.
5.Catastrophic events
6.Shifts in global magnetic
polarity
Figure 4. Geologic Time Scale
 Eons
The eon is the broadest category
of geological time. There are
four eons starting form the
oldest to the youngest which are
the Hadean, Archean,
Proterozoic and Phanerozoic.
Hadean, Archean and
Proterozoic are also collectively
known as the Pre-Cambrian
We live during the Phanerozoic, which means "visible life." This is
Eon.
the interval of geological time characterized by abundant, complex
fossilized remains. Being the youngest eon of the geologic time, it is
also very well represented by rock at Earth's surface. Because of
these two factors, most paleontologists and geologists study fossils
and rocks from the Phanerozoic eon.
Era
The smaller time interval that divides an EON. The
Phanerozoic is divided into three eras: Cenozoic,
Mesozoic and Paleozoic. Very significant events in
the earth’s history are used to determine the
boundaries of the era.
Most of our knowledge of the fossil record comes
from the three eras of the Phanerozoic eon. The
Paleozoic ("old life") era is characterized by
trilobites, the first four-limbed vertebrates and the
ancestors of land plants. The Mesozoic ("middle life")
era represents the "age of dinosaurs," though also is
noteworthy for the first appearances of mammals
and flowering plants. Finally, the Cenozoic ("new
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life") era is sometimes called the "age of mammals"

Periods
Just as eons are subdivided into
eras, eras are subdivided into units
of time called periods. The most
well-known of all geological periods
is the Jurassic period of the
Mesozoic era (the movie Jurassic
Park, of course, has something to
do with that). The Paleozoic era is
divided into six periods. From
oldest to youngest, these are the
Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian,
Devonian, Carboniferous, and
Permian. Note that in the United
States, the Carboniferous is divided
into two separate periods: the
Periods of geological time are subdivided into epochs. In
turn, epochs are divided into even narrower units of time
called ages. Some geologists now think that--since humans
are having such a notable impact on the Earth and its life--a
new, youngest epoch should be added to the Quaternary: the
Anthropocene. There is still considerable discussion in the
geological community about whether this epoch should be
added, as well as debate about what characteristics should
define its beginning.

The Earth’s Story

Pre-Cambrian Eon
There is nothing much we can gather about this eon
since this is the early years of the Earth’s existence.
Moreover, this is a time where there is or no known living
organism. This eon is subdivided into 3 eons that is why it is
after Hades the Greek God of the underworld. Archean eon saw the
appearance of early forms of life which became the source of oxygen
of the planet. This eon ended with what is known as the oxygen
crisis where increased build up of oxygen made the planet
inhospitable to life. The last of the pre-cambrian super eon is the
Proterozoic eon. This eon is also known as the Cryptozoic eon or
the age of hidden life.

Table 1 below summarizes the event characteristics of this eon.

Time Event characteristics
Hadean 4.6-4.0 formation of the solar system and its
BYA planets
formation of early waters in the planet
Archean 4.0-2.5 early bacteria and algae start to exist
BYA early oxygen was produced by
prokaryotic organisms which led to a
build up in the atmosphere
Oxygen Crisis
 Time Event characteristics
Proteroz 2.5 BYA – appearance of stable continents
oic 542 appearance of bacterial and Archean
MYA fossils and eukaryotic cells
prokaryotic organisms start to form
symbiotic relationships
plate tectonics forms Rodinia (the first
supercontinent)
towards its end autotrophs and soft-
bodied heterotrophs filled up the
continental shell of Rodinia
Phanerozoic Eon
The Phanerozoic eon runs from 542 million years ago to the
present. It is subdivided into three eras namely Paleozoic,
Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras.
The Paleozoic Era started 542 MYA and ended 251
MYA. There are two important events that took
place in this era which are the Cambrian explosion or the
evolution of animal life and the Permian extinction of which
around 90% of the species ceased to exist. It is also divided
into six periods which are the Cambrian period, Ordovician
period, Silurian period, Devonian period, Carboniferous
period and Permian Period.
Cambrian period (542-488 MYA)
Rodinia (the one supercontinent) breaks up into a large land
mass called Gondwana which is now the continents in the
southern hemisphere and fragments of land masses that
 Earth has no polar ice caps. It is
warm and wet with no distinct
seasons.

 Marine life flourished. Many

types of primitive animals called
sponges evolved. Small marine
invertebrates called trilobites are
abundant. A variety of algae also
lived in the oceans.

 There is no known land animals

or plants that existed in this period.
Ordovician period (488-423MYA)
 Most continents were still part of the supercontinent
Gondwana. North America and northern Europe were
slowly moving toward each other. Near the end of this
period, part of Gondwana moved over the South Pole
triggering the ice age.
 The climate started as warm and wet but went colder and
an ice age began.
 The oceans are now filled with different types of
invertebrates. New marine invertebrates with shells
evolved and the first corals appeared. Algae and sponges
were dominant in reefs. This period saw the first fish which
were jawless.
 The first land plants that are like mosses and other plants
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without deep roots appeared.

 The ice aged that is experienced in this period saw a mass
extinction where around 80 percent of the marine species
became non-existent. Further the abundant glaciers
caused sea level to drop.

Silurian period (423-416 MYA)

 Gondwana started moving away from the south pole while
North America and Northern Europe collided.
 The movement of Gondwana resulted in the melting of
glaciers which ended the ice age.
 The climate was cold with glaciers near the South Pole and
warmer near the equator.
 In the oceans, corals appeared, and fish continued to
evolve. The first fish with jaws also appeared during this
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 Scorpions and millepede-like animals were the first land
animals that came to exist.
 The first vascular plants with special veins to transport
liquids appeared and covered rapidly most of the land
surface.

Devonian period (416-359 MYA)

 At the beginning there were three major continental land
masses that moved toward each other. The North
America/Europe continent was near the equator, to the
north was a portion of modern Siberia and the south is
Gondwana.
 Sea level was high and much of what is land today was
under shallow seas. 30

 The climate is warm and mild. The interiors of the large

 The shallow, tropical seas had abundant reefs and were
home to a variety of marine organisms. Sharks became
common. Fishes with lobe fins evolved. These lobe-finned
fishes could breathe when they raise their heads above the
water. The population of trilobites declined due to an
increase in swimming predators.
 Proto-amphibians the very first vertebrates appeared and
inhabited the land.
 The first seed plants evolved. No flowering plants existed at
this period.
 At the end of the period, saw the existence of trees and
forests.

Carboniferous period (359-299MYA)

 Its name comes from the name Carbon which saw the Earth
to be swampy that is rich in carbon. Gondwana moved
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 The early part of the period had a uniform, tropical, wet
climate with little seasonality. There were alternating
glacial periods that caused sea level changes. The land
near the equator always stayed moist and tropical.
 With alternating glacial periods and periodic lowering of
sea level resulted on the disappearance of shallow marine
organisms.
 First amphibians evolved to colonize land but had to return
to the water to reproduce.
 The first reptiles appeared and reproduced and laid eggs on
land.
 The first land snails and insects with wings appeared.
 Forests were widespread near the equator. The lush plant
growth provided the material for the great coal deposits.
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
 Permian period (299-251 MYA)
Pangaea existed that stretched from the North Pole to
the South Pole. Ice sheets covered the South Pole.
There were fewer shallow seas than during the
Carboniferous Period.
• Huge climatic changes occurred
due to the existence of a one
giant land mass. With no
moderating effect from bodies of
water, vast deserts were formed
in the central portion of Pangaea.
The climate is dry making the
coal swamps dried up.
• As swamps dried up, amphibians
dwindled while reptiles
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 Plants and animals evolved to adapt to the dry climate by
having waxy leaves and leathery skins, respectively.
 The period ends with the biggest mass extinction. This is
also known as the “great dying” which is believed to be due
to a combination of factors such as massive volcanic eruption,
one or more meteor impacts, global warming, oceanic
conditions and recently animal metabolism due to increase
global temperature.

Mesozoic era is coined from the term “meso” which means

middle animals. This era ranges from 251 MYA to 65.5 MYA
which is a time of dinosaurs. Though, the end of the Paleozoic
era was marked by a great mass extinction, the living things
that survived during this era became the forebears of the
major plant and animal groups. It has 3 periods namely
Triassic period, Jurassic period and Cretaceous period.
Triassic period (251 – 200 MYA)
 Tectonic movements caused Pangea to move in different
directions at different rates which resulted to the formation
Laurasia (Northern Hemisphere) and Gondwanaland
(Southern Hemisphere).
 The continents were covered with vast deserts and high
mountains. Widespread erosion formed great beds of
sandstone in the shallow seas in and around the continents.
 The climate was hot and dry in the continental interior with
no evidence of ice sheets, becoming more humid and having
more rains in the latter part of the period.
 The dominant land animals were the reptiles. The first
dinosaurs branched off from the reptiles and started to live
on land, on air and in water.
 The first dinosaurs, marine reptiles, lizards and tortoises
appeared. 35


 Crocodiles were abundant. Insects attained complete
metamorphosis. Modern corals, fish and insects evolved.
 Conifers, cycads and ferns were common. Huge seed
ferns and conifers dominated the forests.
 This ended with a mass extinction of an unknown cause.
This wiped out about thirty five percent of the animal
groups.

Jurassic period (200 MYA – 145 MYA)

 The breaking up of Pangaea continued and early Atlantic
Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico appeared as shallow
continental seas. Intense volcanic activity also took place
during this period.
 The climate was mild with enough rainfalls.
 This is the “golden age of dinosaurs”. Giant plant-eating
dinosaurs roamed the Earth with smaller vicious carnivores
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 This is also known as the “Age of Cycads” since these plants
became so abundant and diverse. Conifers were the most
diverse large trees at this time.
 Flowering plants appeared for the first time, and new
insects also evolved to pollinate the flowers.
 Mammals evolved but they were of small size.

Cretaceous period (145-65.5 MYA)

 Pangaea continued to break up and the Atlantic Ocean
continued to lengthen and also widen.
 The climate remained mild as in the Jurassic period.
 With the rising sea levels and separated continents, shallow
ocean currents carried warm water farther toward the
poles. This created a mild global climate change.
 Dinosaurs, the ruling group of reptiles, still dominated the
land. This is the time where they reached their maximum
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 By the end of the period, they died out and mammals start
to appear.
 Birds diversified and expanded in numbers. Many groups of
insects appeared and diversified including ants, termites,
bees, butterflies, aphids, and grasshoppers.
 Flowering plants evolved and became diverse which could
have been the reason for the diversification of the insects.
 Another mass extinction occurred at the end of this period
which led to the extinction of the dinosaurs. It is believed
that a meteor or a comet or an asteroid hit the earth which
resulted to a massive tsunami, to darken the skies and stop
photosynthesis and eventually to climate change.

Cenozoic Era means “recent life”. It started 65.5 MYA up to

the present time. There are two periods in this era which are
the Tertiary period and the Quaternary period. The tertiary
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period is divided into five epochs while quaternary period into

the major and climatic changes that occurred during this
Era in each period.

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A.Tertiary period
1.Paleocene epoch
Violent earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and mountain
buildings began the formation of the Alps in Europe, the
Himalayas in Asia, the Rockies in North America and the
Andes in South America characterized the period.
Flowering plants became dominant on land. Mammals
increased in number and in variety.
2.Eocene epoch
The Alps, Himalayas and Andes continued to grow. The
Atlantic and Indian oceans were formed, presumably
through the drifting of continents.
Sea spread in Southern Europe and Northern Africa.
Climate was tropical over much of the earth with glaciers
covering only the tops of high mountains. Complex
structures of flowering plants continued to develop. The
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earliest horse, camel, rhinoceros, pig, elephant, cattle

3.Oligocene epoch
The continents began to grow again. Mountain ranges
continued to build up. A cycle of warm, midland cool
seasons became established. Forests occupied less land,
while grassland increased in area.
Grass-eating mammals increased in number and variety.
A primitive, tailless ape, probably the ancestor of
humans appeared.

4.Miocene epoch
Extensive movements of the Earth’s crust joined Asia
with Europe and locked in the Mediterranean Sea.
Extensive erosion started to carve Grand Canyon in
North America. Climates were varied, warm in some
parts and cooler in other parts. Trees that seasonally
shed leaves increased in number
41 and kind. More
grasslands formed. Fish and mammals steadily increased
and Europe. Elephants and horses increased in size.
Ducks and pelicans appeared in shallow rivers and lakes.
Primitive penguins appeared in the Antarctic.

5.Pliocene epoch
Tectonic activities forming Sierra Nevada and the Coast
Ranges in North America began. Subsidence of land
formed the North Sea, the Black Sea, the Caspian Sea
and the Aral Sea. The rise of the Alps, the Himalayas and
the Andes continued but more slowly this time. Climate
remained varied as in the Miocene epoch. Mammals
decreased in species. Ape-man, which can be best
describe as pre-human, appeared, and increased in
number.

B.Quaternary period 42
epoch. The increase of glaciers lowered the ocean level;
the melting of glaciers raised the ocean level. Mammals
and primitive people crossed land bridges exposed by the
sinking water level.

2.Recent epoch
Glaciers began to melt, causing the water level to rise
again, thus separating the British Isles from Europe. The
climate became warm; formed more deserts. People
developed human-level intelligence and learned to
domesticate animals and cultivate plants.

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Exercise 1 Geologic Time Scale Word Search
Procedure:
1.Examine the table containing the letters.
2.Trace 15 words horizontally, vertically, and diagonally
that relates to geologic time scale.
3.Write down the words on a separate sheet paper.
P M E S O Z O I C C
A E D M I O C E N E
L O R E A R T H P N
E N S I V N E W E O
O A T Z O O N W R Z
Z T I M E D N X M O
O E P O C H R I I I
I R E C E N T C A C
C A M B R I A N N N
 ASSESSMENT

1. How do geologists determine the exact age of rocks?

A. relative dating C. use of index fossils
B. absolute dating D. all of the above

2. What is referred to as a plant or animal remain that is preserved in

rocks and used to describe the characteristic of a particular span of
geologic time and environment?
C. fossils C. body fossils
D. trace fossils D. marker fossils

3. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of a marker fossil?

A. abundant C. short lived
B. widespread D. long lasting
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4. What is referred to a process of correlating rock layers of different location
through the presence or absence of a certain marker fossil?
A. ageing B. dating C. matching D. A & B

5. What is the difference between absolute dating and relative dating? Absolute
dating _______________ while relative dating ________________.
B. uses the principles of stratigraphy to determine the age of the earth; uses
radioactive isotopes to determine the age of rocks.
C. determines the age of rocks according to the arrangement of the layers of
rocks determines the age of rocks by comparing the amount of the parent
element with the daughter element that exists in the rock.
D. measures the exact age of the rock by determining the amount of radioactive
parent element left to a daughter element while relative dating estimates the
age of a rock through stratigraphic principles.
E. none of the above
6. A geologist finds a rock outcrop with fossils. He would like to determine the
age of the rock based on the presence of an index fossil. Which of the
following characteristics is not useful in identifying an index or marker fossil?
A. abundance B. distinctiveness C. short span D. widespread

7. Which are the index fossils in the 4 outcrops above?

A. ammonites and trilobites C. ammonites and gastropods
B. brachiopods and trilobites D. ammonites and brachiopods
8. How do index fossils relate to Geologic time?
A. Index fossils are the basis for defining boundaries in the geological
time scale and for the correlation of strata.
B. An index fossil is easily recognizable, abundant, and widely
distributed geographically for a short duration of time.
C. Fossils of animals and plants are preserved in the rock record of the
Earth that identify a particular span of geologic time.
D. All of these

9. What does geologic time scale represent? It represents

______________.
E. geologic history of universe
F. fossil record as we know it
G. age of the earth and all creatures on it
H. theorized development of life on earth dating back 4.6 billion years
ago
10. What is the youngest epoch in the Cenozoic Era?
A. Eocene B. Halocene C. Miocene D. Paleocene

11. Which geologic period did modern humans evolve?

B. Ordovician B. Quaternary C. Tertiary D. Triassic

12. What group of plants evolved during the Mesozoic Era and is
dominant today?
C. algae B. angiosperms C. ginkgoes D. gymnosperms

13. Which has the shortest measurement of time in the geologic time
scale?
A. age B. epoch C. era D. period
14. How does an eon differ from an era?
A. An eon spans up to a million years, while eras span longer than 2 million years.
B.Eons focus on the existence of Earth, while eras measure the passage of time
from the Big Bang.
C.An eon spans hundred to thousands of million years, while eras span tens to
hundreds of million years.
D.Eons measure the time during which humanity existed, while eras measure
everything since the Earth was formed.

15. Which is the correct sequence of events from the oldest to the latest?
I. oxygen build-up IV. coal formation in swampy forests
II. early primates emerge V. formation of early supercontinent
III.Iemergence of terrestrial life VI. dinosaurs became diverse and abundant

A.I, VI, II, V, III, IV C. I, III, V, II, IV, VI

B.I, V, III, IV, VI, II D. I, II, III, IV, V, V