Gaseous Exchange and Respiration (2)1

GASEOUS EXCHANGE AND RESPIRATION
By
PROF. C.A IBIDAPO.

INTRODUCTION
Respiration is the process by which
food is broken down to release energy.

Energy is released by the metabolic
breakdown of organic compounds,
mainly carbohydrates. The reactions
constitute cell, tissue or internal
respiration. Respiration occurs in all
organisms and in every living cell,
External Respiration (Gaseous Exchange)
This is the process by which atmospheric oxygen
enters the living organism and carbon dioxide
and water vapour is expelled . In some organisms
this can take place over the whole body surface
and in many others it occurs in special organs
e.g trachea, lungs, gills.

.
Internal (Cell or Tissue)
Respiration
•The process in which sugar is broken
down by a series of enzyme
controlled reactions to release energy.
The energy released is stored in a
compound called ATP (Adenosine
triphosphate) which is the form in
which energy is used in all living cells
Structure and Function of the Mammalian
Respiratory System
Air enters a mammalian respiratory system
through nostrils (external nares), passes
through a nasal chamber, lined with mucus –
secreting epithelium, and then through internal
nares which are nasal openings connected to
the pharynx.
Here, where pathways of digestion and
respiration cross, inhaled air leaves the
pharnx by passing into a narrow opening,
the glottis. Food enters oesophagus to pass
to the stomach.
The glottis opens into the larynx or voice box
and then into the trachea, branches into two

bronchi, one to each lung. Within the lungs
each bronchus divides and subdivides into
small tubes (bronchioles) that lead via
The single layered endothelial walls of
the alveoli and alveolar ducts are thin

and moist to facilitate exchange of
gases between air and adjacent blood
capillaries.
Air passage ways are lined with both
mucus-secreting and ciliated epithelial

cells, which play an important role in
conditioning the air before it reaches
HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
THE ALVEOLI
Partial cartilage rings in the walls of tracheae, bronchi and some
of the larger bronchioles prevent those structures from
collapsing .
In its passage to the air sacs, air undergoes three important
changes:
(a) It is filtered free from most dust and other foreign substances
(b) It is warmed to body temperature
(c) It is saturated with moisture

LUNGS
 The lungs consist of a great deal of

elastic connective tissue. They are
covered by a thin layer of tough
epithelium known as the visceral
pleura. Continuous with this layer is a
similar layer, the parietal pleura, that
lines the inner surface of the walls of
the chest. The two layers of the pleura
are in close contact and slide over
one another as the lungs expand and
 The space between the pleura, called the pleural cavity
maintains a partial vacuum, or negative intrapleural
pressure, which helps keep the lungs expanded to fill the
pleural cavity.
 The two pleura rub together lubricated by tissue
fluid. The chest cavity is bounded by the spine,
ribs, and breastbone, and floored by the
diaphragm, a dome shaped muscular partition
between the chest cavity and abdomen. A
muscular diaphragm is found only in mammals.

Mechanism of the Breathing
Process
 There are two phases in the
breathing process: inspiration
(inhalation),when atmospheric air is
breathed in and expiration
(exhalation) when C02 rich air from
the lungs is breathed out.
 Inspiration occurs in the following
sequence:
i. Diaphragm contracts and
i. Sternum moves forward.
ii. Volume of thoracic cavity therefore increases
and pressure in the lungs is lowered .

Air from outside rushes in through the nose and fills
the alveoli Expiration occurs in the following
sequence.
Diaphragm relaxes and returns to its dome shape.
Intercoastal muscles relax and ribs are
lowered.
Sternum moves backward.
Volume of thorax therefore decreases
and pressure in the lungs is increased.

Air is expelled from the lungs through
the nose.
How Breathing is Coordinated
Breathing is normally involuntary and automatic but
can come under voluntary control. Neurons in the
medulla of the brain regulate normal, quiet
breathing. They spontaneously produce movements
that stimulate contraction of the diaphragm and
external intercostal muscles during inspiration.

Respiration must adjust itself to
changing requirements of the body for
oxygen. Carbondioxide rather than
oxygen has the greatest effect on
respiratory rate because under normal
conditions arterial oxygen does not
decline enough to stimulate chemicals
receptors (chemoreceptors) in the
A small rise in carbondioxide level in the
blood has a powerful effect on

respiratory activity. The stimulatory
effects of carbon dioxide are due in part
to an increase in hydrogen ion
concentration in cerebrospinal fluid.
The Respiratory Cycle
• A person breathing normally at rest takes in and expels
approximately 0.5dm3 ( half a litre) of air during each
respiratory cycle . This is known as his tidal volume, and
it can be measured by means of a recording spirometer.
The rate of respiration can be expressed in terms of
ventilation rate, the volume of air breathed per minute .

• Ventilation rate = Tidal volume x Frequency of
inspirations.
• The ventilation rate changes according to
circumstances e.g muscular exercise. If you take a
deep breath, you can take into your lungs about 3
litres of air over and above the tidal volume. This is
known as the inspiratory reserve volume .

• If at the end of a normal expiration you expel as much
air as you possibly can, the extra air expired amounts
to about 1.0 litre and is called the expiratory reserve
volume. The total amount of air that can be expired
after a maximum inspiration (i.e. the tidal volume plus
inspiratory and expiratory reserve volumes) is known
as the vital capacity. 1dm3 = 1 litre

Gas Exchange Across The Alveolar Surface
The principal site of gaseous exchange are the numerous
alveoli. The alveoli are separated from the bloodstream by a
very thin alveolar membrane consisting of only two layers of
pavement epithelial cells.

Blood reaching the alveoli has a lower pressure of oxygen,
and a higher partial pressure of carbon dioxide, than the
alveolar air.
There is thus a concentration gradient
favouring the diffusion of these two
gases in opposite directions .

As blood flows past an alveolus, oxygen
diffuses into it and Co2 out, so that by
the time the blood leaves the alveolus,
it has the same partial pressure of O2

During this equalization of partial
pressures, the percentage saturation of
the blood rises from about 70% to over
95%. The composition of alveolar air
remains unchanged because of exchanges
between it and the inspired air.
How Respiratory Gases are Transported
In all vertebrates, nearly all oxygen and a
significant amount of carbon dioxide are
transported by special coloured proteins or
respiratory pigments called haemoglobin
in the blood. These respiratory pigments
are packaged into red blood cells.
Haemoglobin is a red iron-containing
protein present in all vertebrates
and many invertebrates. Each
molecule of haemoglobin is 5%
heme, an iron containing compound
giving the red colour to blood and
95% globin, a colourless protein.

The heme portion of haemogblobin
has great affinity for oxygen. Each
gram of haemoglobin can carry a
maximum of approximately 1.3ml of
oxygen. Fully oxygenated blood
contains approximately 20ml of
oxygen per 100ml .

Haemoglobin has the ability to hold
oxygen in a loose, reversible

chemical combination so that it can
be released to tissues. The actual
amount of oxygen that combines with
haemoglobin depends on the shape.
We can express the relationship of
carrying capacity to surrounding oxygen
concentration as haemoglobin saturation
curves also called O2 dissociation curves.
The lower the surrounding oxygen partial
pressure the greater the quantity of
oxygen released. This important
characteristic of haemoglobin allows
more oxygen to be released to those
The same blood that transports O2 to
the tissues from the lungs must carry

carbondioxide back to the lungs on
its return trip. Unlike oxygen that is
transported exclusively in
combination with haemoglobin, C02 is
transported in three different forms .
A small fraction of the blood–borne
C02, only about 5% is carried as gas
physically dissolved in the plasma.
The remainder diffuses into red blood
cells. In red blood cells, most C02
approximately 70%, become carbonic
acid through action of the enzyme

Carbonic acid immediately dissociates into hydrogen-
ion and bicarbonate ion. The hydrogen ions combine
with haemoglobin to form deoxyhaemoglobin, thus
preventing a severe decrease in blood pH, and releasing
O2 simultaneously.
A fraction of the C02, about 25% combines reversibly
with haemoglobin.
• Aerobic respiration takes place in the
Mechanism of Internal Respiration
presence of O2, anaerobic respiration
takes place in the absence of oxygen.
The breakdown of glucose in the cell of
living organisms to produce energy
involves two major pathways.
i. The glycolytic pathway

Glycolytic Cycle
• In the glycolytic pathway glucose is
broken down through a series of
reactions to pyruvic acid with the
release of some energy in the form of
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in the
presence of enzymes and the absence

• The anaerobic net yield of glycolysis are two molecules
of ATP for each molecule of glucose respired. This
sequence of reactions is known as glycolysis meaning
“sugar splitting” and it occurs in the cytoplasm of the
cell. In anaerobic respiration breakdown proceeds no
further and pyruvic acid is converted to ethanol in plants
and lactic acid in animals for storage or elimination.

Kreb’s Cycle
• Kreb’s cycle follows glycolysis. Pyruvic acid in the presence
of oxygen (aerobic process), under the influence of enzymes
is oxidized by Acetylcoenyme A (Acetyl-CoA) in the
mitchondria of the cell to carbon-dioxide and water with the
production of large amounts of energy (ATP).
The
• The entire aerobic respiration reaction produces a
net yield of 36 molecules of ATP, for each molecule
of glucose. The balanced chemical equation for the
overall process is C6H12O6+6O2 6H2O
+6CO2+Energy.
• Glycogen can be converted to glucose to produce
energy when:
• (i) the concentration of glucose in the blood
is low e.g. when one is fasting, starving or
hungry.
The concentration of hormones Epinephrine
(adrenalin) is increased in stress e.g . when
one is sick or under anxiety, fear or exercise.

Uses of fermentation (Glycolysis)
i. In the brewing of alcohol.
ii. For baking or production of bread .
iii. Retting of jute.
iv. Curing of tobacco or cocoa beans.
v. Method by which bacteria and fungi
obtain their energy for growth.

ii. Bacteria are used in a few
processes in chemical industries to

produce acids.
iii. Fermentation of cassava.
iv. Commercially used as a source of
protein and vitamins.

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GASEOUS EXCHANGE AND RESPIRATION

PROF. C.A IBIDAPO.

food is broken down to release energy.

This is the process by which atmospheric oxygen

enters the living organism and carbon dioxide

and water vapour is expelled . In some organisms

this can take place over the whole body surface

and in many others it occurs in special organs

e.g trachea, lungs, gills.

through nostrils (external nares), passes

through a nasal chamber, lined with mucus –

secreting epithelium, and then through internal

nares which are nasal openings connected to

and then into the trachea, branches into two

the alveoli and alveolar ducts are thin

mucus-secreting and ciliated epithelial

of the larger bronchioles prevent those structures from

(b) It is warmed to body temperature

(c) It is saturated with moisture

 The lungs consist of a great deal of

maintains a partial vacuum, or negative intrapleural

pressure, which helps keep the lungs expanded to fill the

fluid. The chest cavity is bounded by the spine,

ribs, and breastbone, and floored by the

diaphragm, a dome shaped muscular partition

between the chest cavity and abdomen. A

muscular diaphragm is found only in mammals.

ii. Volume of thoracic cavity therefore increases

and pressure in the lungs is lowered .

the alveoli Expiration occurs in the following

Volume of thorax therefore decreases

and pressure in the lungs is increased.

can come under voluntary control. Neurons in the

medulla of the brain regulate normal, quiet

breathing. They spontaneously produce movements

that stimulate contraction of the diaphragm and

external intercostal muscles during inspiration.

blood has a powerful effect on

approximately 0.5dm3 ( half a litre) of air during each

respiratory cycle . This is known as his tidal volume, and

it can be measured by means of a recording spirometer.

The rate of respiration can be expressed in terms of

ventilation rate, the volume of air breathed per minute .

circumstances e.g muscular exercise. If you take a

deep breath, you can take into your lungs about 3

litres of air over and above the tidal volume. This is

known as the inspiratory reserve volume .

air as you possibly can, the extra air expired amounts

to about 1.0 litre and is called the expiratory reserve

volume. The total amount of air that can be expired

after a maximum inspiration (i.e. the tidal volume plus

inspiratory and expiratory reserve volumes) is known

as the vital capacity. 1dm3 = 1 litre

alveoli. The alveoli are separated from the bloodstream by a

very thin alveolar membrane consisting of only two layers of

pavement epithelial cells.

and a higher partial pressure of carbon dioxide, than the

favouring the diffusion of these two

gases in opposite directions .

diffuses into it and Co2 out, so that by